Theodore free essay sample

Theodore Gericault turned a tragic event, into a visual display of government incompetence. In 1816, the French government exercised poor Judgment, by authorizing the unstable Medusa to set sail. The vessel crashed; leaving survivors to turn to cannibalistic means of survival. Gericault captured the tragedy, titled The Raft of the Medusa in Romantic style, long with compositional structure. The lifelike fgures in the painting show detailed anguish and grief; which, invokes despair in those who view it. The use of light and shade emphasizes drama throughout the painting. along with compositional structure. The lifelike figures in the painting show detailed

How Chinas political, religious and ideological systems allowed for both continuity and change

How Chinas political, religious and ideological systems allowed for both continuity and change Introduction China is known for its historically authoritarian political system. Nonetheless, this has not stopped them from emerging as one of the greatest national economic powers. The twentieth century was dominated by United States as the best economy but this has changed in 21st century where China is set to lead the pack of emerging economies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on How Chinas political, religious and ideological systems allowed for both continuity and change? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More China’s situation is unique given that most powerful states draw such powers from wealth. The recent protest that was observed in Tiananmen Square conveys political repression in china as youths seek change but the government is unlikely to grant this that easily. China’s political system, which has been largely regarded as communist and undemocratic, has allowed continuity as well as change. In addi tion, its religious system has been quite instrumental in its continuity. The balance of dynamism and conservatism has ensured continuity in China. Its founder Qin Shi Huangdi who failed to establish immortality is regarded as the founding father of China’s political system as well as the world’s oldest civilization. The country is currently facing globalization and change is eminent although it is hard to come by, considering the government’s effort to ensure continuity of their ideological systems. This paper will endeavor to explore the manner in which political, religious and ideological systems of China have enabled continuity and change (Sirgo, Gleason, and Tarver 1) History of China China is regarded as one of the oldest of Civilizations in the world. Its ancient civilization extends throughout East Asia. Its civilization is estimated to have started over 4000 years ago. Its societies and economies were the best in the world before 19th century. However, they missed industrialization that took shape in 19th century leading to their decline. This was mainly because of the dynasties that ruled China, imperialism, civil wars as well as internal weakness. The country’s turmoil resulted into two states that still called themselves China. These were, Republic of China (ROC) and People’s Republic of China (PRC). The former was established in 1912 in the mainland and is currently known as Taiwan while the latter was established in 1949 and takes control of the mainland from Taiwan. Taiwan now controls the islands such as Taiwan, Matsu, Pratas, Kinmen, among other outlying islands.Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More People’s Republic of China (PRC) remains the largest and controls the self-governing states of Macau and Hong Kong. Hong Kong was liberated to govern itself in 1997 while Macau in 1999 (U.S. Department of St ate 1). Taiwan changed its economic policies in 1950s that enabled it to be industrialized. This transformed its economy resulting in high growth and development. These changes were embraced later by the PRC, in the 70s, in which they made the famous Four Modernizations that aimed to improve agriculture, defense, technology as well as its industries. These changes led to modernization in China as it transformed into an economic giant, in the process raising their living standards. PRC has since become a powerful economic power in the world, challenging the likes of United States and traditionally known economic powers like European Union in the 21st century. The country’s culture has spread throughout the region and acquired by its neighboring countries like Japan. China is also regarded as a source of inventions and innovations throughout its history. Its language systems were the first to be written in the world. It has also been a site for archeological research as they st udy the remains of Homo erectus estimated to have lived there over 300000 years ago. China face modern challenges as other nations, the main concerns include widespread corruption, degradation of the environment as well as the increasing gap between the poor and the rich (U.S. Department of State 1). China’s political system Government China is controlled by Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which is authoritarian in both ideology and structure. This has not been easy because of the diverse nature of the country in geography and social circles. They have been restricted to building consensus in most issues with other parties, influential people, regional leaders as well as the Chinese population at large. The party has a membership of over 76 Million and dominates Chinese government. Their influences have always prevailed, except in economic issues in which external influences from non-party members and organizations have prevailed.Advertising We will write a custom essa y sample on How Chinas political, religious and ideological systems allowed for both continuity and change? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In other essential issues of culture and economy, the committees ensure that they are followed in accordance with the party’s guidance. The coastal regions usually offer great challenges to the party since their growth is rapid (U.S. Department of State 1). Legal System After the famous Chinese Cultural Revolution, the government opted to emphasize on enforcing the rule of law. This was done through the new state constitution, which was adopted in 1982. Great focus was placed on taming tyrannical rulers, who could be held responsible in the new law. Over 300 laws, most of which aimed at economic reforms have been adopted in China since 1979. This showed their efforts to restrain revolutionary leaders who overused powers. Among the innovative ways, include their use of mediation committees to solv e minor criminal cases throughout the country as well as the fact that they are well informed and take responsibility for over 90% of china’s civil cases. These committees are numerous, accounting for more than 800000 committees throughout the country. The country has made numerous reforms on law by professionalizing the whole system. These led to further amendments of criminal laws as citizens got the opportunity to sue officials who happen to abuse office. The latest advancement in China’s constitutional amendment was done in 2004 and it included fundamental human rights as well as ownership of property. These developments are however rarely practiced in some cases, and this negates the gains in handling human rights (U.S. Department of State 1). Human Rights Although changes were made to improve human rights, this has not been adequately accomplished as several human rights abuses occur in China. The year 2009 witnessed continued abuses of human rights with the lega l system being faulted for inadequacy in stemming such abuses. These were observed during the 50th anniversary in honor of Tibetan uprising as well as in the 20th anniversary of the Tiananmen Square. The other high profile human abuse incident happened during celebration of 60th anniversary of PRC. These abuses included detention, executions that did not follow the correct process.Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Others included extrajudicial killings, torture, forced confessions as well as severe restriction of basic human rights such as freedom of speech, privacy, religion, association, birth (birth limitation), press, among others. These presents exceedingly hash treatment of citizens as such activities rarely happen in the modern world. Nonetheless, the changes that have been realized by China in its political system have been key components of its continuity and change (U.S. Department of State 1). China’s religious system Chinese lifestyle is greatly influenced by religion. Research and surveys conducted throughout the country in the year 2007 showed that over 30% of Chinese citizens were religious believers (those aged 16 years and above). Restrictions have been placed on religious sectors even though they proclaim freedom of religious belief to all citizens. Buddhism is the most common denomination in China with Chinese news agency Xinhua estimating their number at over 100 mi llion. Other estimates show that over 20 million Chinese are Muslims, and another 20 million Protestants. Catholics are estimated to be over 5 million while there are no statistics for Taoists. More recently, several unofficial religions and unauthorized churches have sprung in China. These have led to widespread harassment by authorities in some parts of the country. Catholic’s loyalty to Vatican also triggers suppression since the government claims that Rome interferes with their internal affairs. It also brands some Christian groups as well as Falun Gong as evil religions thereby suppressing their practice (U.S. Department of State 1). Civilians in china have suffered severe human rights abuses regarding their freedom of worship. This is mainly because China only recognizes five denominations. These recognized religions are Buddhism, Taoism, Protestantism as well as Islam. The country monitors almost everything its citizens engage in, for instance, internet writing, journa lists, political rebels as well as religious activists. This does not leave non-governmental organization as their activities are monitored as well. The religious sectors that are recognized by the country are also monitored, in essence, regulating worship and religious groups. This is abuse of human rights to freedom of religion as they intimidate and harass any individual or groups that seek to worship through other denominations apart from the named. This way, the country is able to control its people from diverse ideas that they fear may lead to its disintegration. Unregistered religious groups are outlawed and are likely to cause detention, harassment or intimidation (U.S. Department of State 1). The United States has labeled China as a country with specific concerns as it restricts religious freedom. The country does not allow any spiritual movements that counter its five registered denominations. This amounts to severe abuse of human rights and religious freedom. The countryà ¢â‚¬â„¢s significant economic growth has led to improved lives. This has contributed to social mobility as people look for jobs, join institutions of higher learning throughout the country and abroad, in the process expanding the limits of personal freedom. Increased mobility has expanded freedom of travel, association, cultural mix, educational pursuit and access to information through the internet among other ways. Other freedoms achieved through economic developments include freedom to employment, personal choices and social interactions. These have enabled spread of religious practices throughout the country, effecting a gradual change in religious awareness. China’s religious system has therefore contributed to its continuity as well as change, although at a slower pace compared to political and ideological systems (Singh 1). China’s ideological system Chinese Communist Party The communist party CCP is authoritarian in its ideologies and enforces them on Chinese c itizens. Since CCP is a communist party, their structures are based on communism, focusing more on establishing and maintaining cultural values. To achieve this, they have a well-organized members committee that ensures these regulations are followed. The strong economic reforms that were implemented by PRC, in the 1970s, in which they made the famous Four Modernizations aimed at improving agriculture, defense, technology as well as its industries worked to propel china to their present position as an economic powerhouse. In these reforms, they adopted a pragmatic approach to several socioeconomic and political problems. They also managed to reduce the role played by ideology in their system to spur further economic growth. The strong ideology that founded China had to be slowed after 1978 to allow for economic growth, which had already started in Taiwan (U.S. Department of State 1). How these systems have allowed for both continuity and change Political system China’s politi cal system has an authoritarian communist party with communist ideologies in its structures, putting more effort on maintaining sociocultural issues. The government was known for its authoritarian stand on legal system. However, this had to change, as dealing with diverse communities from a central location (Beijing) became reasonably difficult. Influence from the international community as well as rise of Taiwan through economic reforms. Reforms in China’s legal system have expanded limits of freedom as basic human rights. They have also done a series of amendments to their constitution to allow for professionalization of judges, lawyers as well as accountability of office bearers. These changes have enabled China’s economic growth as well as expanded freedom. In this regard, the system allowed for change and continuity (Fenby 1). Religious system It is estimated that over 30% of Chinese are believers, meaning that religion makes a great influence on the country. The government only recognizes five denominations in the country. In addition, it monitors as well as regulates these denominations, and in the process suppresses any spiritual or religious groups that they feel are not patriotic. These include their rivalry with Vatican, which they accuse of interfering with Chinese internal affairs. In recent times, various crops of religious groups have sprung throughout the country, influencing social and cultural changes. Religious systems have therefore contributed greatly to change and continuity in China. Ideological system China has assumed new approach to numerous political hitches. They also managed to reduce the role played by ideology in their system to spur further economic growth. The strong ideology that founded China had to be slowed after 1978 to allow for economic growth, which had already started in Taiwan. This shows their soft stance on the formerly aggressive ideologies that structured its foundation. Reduction in ideological syst ems have enhanced changes and spurred economic growth (Xiaowen 1). Conclusion China’s political, religious and ideological systems have contributed greatly to continuity and change. Their society is among the first to be established in the world. They have also managed to make changes in their policies. These policies have mainly targeted the law system, which was professionalized, the four modernizations that included agricultural improvement, industrial, defense as well as technology. The twentieth century was dominated by United States as the best economy but this has changed in 21st century where China is set to lead the pack of emerging economies. These systems have therefore contributed to China’s continuity in conserving its cultural values as well as change in their legal systems, religious sectors as well as their handling of human rights (Leung 1). Fenby, Jonathan. â€Å"Continuity and Change†. Guardian. 15.11.2007.05.06.2011. guardian.co.uk/commentis free/2007/nov/15/morethantwomillenniaafter Leung, Beatrice. â€Å"Chinas Religious Freedom Policy: The Art of Managing Religious Activity†. The China Quarterly. 05.06.2011.05.06.2011. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=onlineaid=358810 Singh, Swaran. â€Å"Continuity and Change in Chinas Political Elite†. Idsa. 05.06.2011.05.06.2011. idsa-india.org/an-nov-3.html Sirgo, Henry., Gleason, Diane and Tarver, Michael. Continuity and Change in the Chinese Political System: Why Consumerism Does Not Translate Into Democracy†. All academic. 05.06.2011.05.06.2011. allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/4/1/7/9/p141798_index.html U.S. Department of State. â€Å"Background Note: China†. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. 05.08.2010. 05.06.2011. state.gov/ r/pa/ei/bgn/18902.htm Xiaowen, Ye. â€Å"Chinas Religions Retrospect and Prospect†. china.org. 19.02.2001. 05.06.2011. china.org.cn/english/ features/45466.htm

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The Difference Between Bienvenu and Bienvenue

The Difference Between 'Bienvenu' and 'Bienvenue' Mistakes will always be made in French, and now you can learn from them. When wanting to express Welcome! as a stand-alone phrase, beginners to French will often write  Bienvenu! ​instead of  the correct spelling of Bienvenue! Explanation of Bienvenue vs. Bienvenu Bienvenue used as a greeting is short for je vous souhaite la bienvenue, which literally means I wish you welcome. When saying Welcome! with no verb, you always have to use the feminine:  Bienvenue! Bienvenu with no e is an adjective often used as a noun conforming to a subject. To use this spelling of Bienvenu, the employed sentence needs to have a subject. Because of this, only when using a complete sentence can you say either Soyez le bienvenu or Soyez la bienvenue, according to the gender of the person you are talking to. You can say Soyez les bienvenus if its more than one person. The distinction is confusing and often leads to mistakes. A famous example is that of a sign in Utah that reads: Bienvenu internationale voyageurs. This sentence is wrong on many levels. Because it possesses no subject, the correct spelling would be Bienvenue ending with an e. In this instance, it would also need to be followed by the preposition . On a different but related note, the adjective international should be plural instead of feminine (to agree with voyageurs), and it should follow rather than precede the noun. The apostrophe has no business there either. Better French Greetings for the sign would be: Bienvenue aux voyageurs internationauxVoyageurs internationaux : soyez les bienvenus

The Effects of Social Media in Today's Society Research Paper

The Effects of Social Media in Today's Society - Research Paper Example Anyone with an internet connection can access social networking sites. Since 1975, when the first type of social networking was introduced in the form of Hotmail, social media has come a long way. It has been observed that social networking sites like Facebook and Orkut lead to time wastage, but their benefits cannot be completely ignored. This research paper aims to measure the positive and negative effects of social media on society. Who do social media reach and how can it influence people’s lives? Social media is accessible to anyone who has a simple internet connection at home, office or anywhere in his or her environment. It is reachable to people from all walks of life, from students to business professionals. Websites like MySpace and Bebo help connect friends and family by bringing them under a single platform. Similarly, social networking sites like eBay bring buyers and sellers to exchange commodities between them. In short, social media helps B2B (business to busin ess), B2C (business to consumers) and C2C (consumers to consumers) interact, share information or files, and trade all under a single platform (Hendricks, 2012). Social media influences our life and daily routine in a great many ways depending how we utilize these networking tools. Time is of essence, and this is what it helps save. People find it much easier to go online and read articles and electronic books rather than newspapers or books that are physical in nature. In this fast moving world, people have adapted to the technological development made especially in the last decade. There has been a huge decline in book reading as people have turned to social media to meet their reading needs. Social media is changing the social habit of people. Though eBooks save time, they cause massive exertion and fatigue (Coupland, 2012, p. 103). People find it much easier to shop online than to physically go to shops and malls to make purchases. Social media is changing the way people shop no wadays. Products can be ordered with just a single click and can be delivered right at the doorsteps. Such facilities have made life very convenient for people. However, there are major drawbacks of shopping online. People have become more careful when making purchases. Buyers often complain that the products delivered to them do not match the seller’s description. In some cases, they were charged twice as much as the initial cost. Cybercrimes are on the increase, and many people have reported crimes against identity and credit card thefts (Close, 2012). How social media can change the global climate Social media can change the global climate by making people aware of the rise in global pollution and the damage it is inflicting to the ozone layer. Altogether, about 300 million people use various types of social media and upload around 220,000 videos on YouTube on a diurnal basis. Such is the power of social media, and if these people can be reached with an effective message, then the results could be very successful. Efforts are being made with a simple plan in mind. Most charitable and non-governmental organizations have joined hands for a peaceful revolution against massive pollution. The main idea is to create a community on social networking websites and blogs and try to get as many likes as possible. Frequently posting articles helps educate the readers about the dire consequences of pollution and how the planet can be saved. These articles are read and then shared by readers with their friends and

How a Glorified Vision of an Ideal Family Has Been Exploited Time Term Paper

How a Glorified Vision of an Ideal Family Has Been Exploited Time - Term Paper Example Names and photographs, if possible, arranged in the shape of a tree with branches, signify nature of relationship i.e. genetic or through marriage. Family histories more often recorded in family bibles, help trace relations that may have drifted off and revived them for sentimental and occasionally practical reasons. For instance, in case of proving an inheritance, these family trees are useful in establishing and tracking down relations that may have been lost in the sands of time. At one level, family though may mean a group of individuals bound together by the genetic makeup, at another level, it also stands for national identity. The family tree, an illustration by Norman Rockwell, symbolizes the concept of an American family at a national level. His illustration for the 1959 October edition of Saturday Evening Post cover shows a family tree filled with an array of faces, illustrating the eventful phases of history. The family tree comprising Yankees, Yeomen, Buccaneers, Confederates, Spanish beauties, Puritans and Aristocrats showcases America as a melting pot of cultures. Instead of depicting pilgrims at Plymouth rock as the beginning of American history, Rockwell preferred to illustrate pirates looting European ships carrying treasures, shown by ships from both ends and the coming together of pirates and European aristocrats through marriage (at the base of the family tree). Rockwell chose to depict the Civil War through union and confederate soldiers portraying how diverse elements went into the forming of a new entity instead of using slaves to do so. The presence of mountain man and a tribal woman goes to show how various cultures and tribes were amalgamated into the history eventually giving rise to a broad and a tolerant outlook encasing the 'spirit of America'. However, it is debatable to judge the illustration as a representation of the American entity since it is marked by the absence of Mexican and Asian faces.  

Profit Maximization - An Actual or Theoretical Objective Essay

Profit Maximization - An Actual or Theoretical Objective - Essay Example For example, rice farmed and thrashed by the farmer is sold for a particular value to companies. These companies in turn process the rice, separating quality grains and packing them with their label, thereby increasing the value of rice. The transporters and stores extract their profit by integrating it in the cost of the rice. In the end, the consumer pays a multifold monetary worth for the rice along with comparable value for money. Some organizations tend to get carried away with their profit-making motives, ending up reaping unjustly high profits. Such organizations tend to lose their loyal customers for two major reasons: not being able to provide comparable value for money and with the entry of competition into their market. Profit Maximization is now a general trend, which had earlier been a typical phenomenon for monopolistic competition – where the absence of competition enables these organizations to charge unjustly high prices for their offerings. Hence it is said t hat free competition is the â€Å"invisible hand† for controlling market prices naturally (Smith). When companies are allowed to compete without regulatory interventions like government policies etc, the resultant market provides both buyers and sellers with best opportunities in terms of exchanges. Buyers and sellers benefit alike from the competition. Profit Maximization: Profit Maximization is a basic Economics concept, which implies extracting highest possible profits through production and sales processes. Profit is the difference between total revenue and the total cost. Total revenue implies the total amount an organization receives from business whereas the total cost means the total investment the organization makes to produce and sell the goods and services. At different activity levels, the cost incurred and the revenue earned tend to be different (as shown in the diagram). From: Sparknotes.com The above graph clearly shows varied profitability at different activit y levels. However, the highest profitability is at the point marked â€Å"profit maximization†. At this point, the difference between costs and revenue is the greatest. At all activity levels below and above this point, the profit is lower in comparison with this point. Profit Maximization can be devised through numerous methods. The aforesaid theory is the Total Cost-Total Revenue methodology for determining the profits. Marginal Revenue-Marginal Cost method is also used to determine maximum profitability activity level. However, the base line for both methods is the same – revenue minus cost equals profit. Theoretically, Profit Maximization is often explained as an unethical practice on behalf of business owners, focusing extensively on monetary gains and overlooking other factors. On this note, it is important to remark that profit maximization does not necessary include unethical practices regarding pricing. However, â€Å"it fails to take adequate account of alte rnative desires of the businessmen, for power, leisure, social prestige, and similar non-monetary rewards† (Koplin). Some critics do not agree that Profit Maximization is the underlying objective for business operations since it does not take into account other factors important in the eyes of the investors. Most businesses do not operate for profit reasons only – some businesses like certain blood banks and hospitals work for societal welfare that cannot be weighed in monetary terms. But some critics maintain the importance of Profit Maximizati

International Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

International Marketing - Essay Example This essay discusses that successful saturated penetration of a brand in the domestic market always motivates the brand to look forward to the international market. Current picture of global market shows two types of international expansion of successful domestic brands of any country in the World. Marketers from developed countries are looking forward to the emerging markets like India, China, South Korea, South Africa etc and seeking opportunities to expand their business operation there. Brands from emerging markets are trying to step forward to the developed countries like USA, Japan etc to start their business operation there. If we take the example of well known brands such as Samsung and LG, they started business in emerging market and successfully penetrated on the domestic market of South Korea and after that diversified globally in to the developed market like USA and as well as emerging markets like India and China. Indian successful brands like Tata, Bharti Airtel, Lenevo , and Kohinur have achieved some level of success in the global market specially developed markets. Globalisation of any country has opened the door for the domestic Players to diversify in the foreign market and welcome the foreign players to start operation in that country. Earlier, the production giants of developed countries started diversification in the emerging markets of developing countries for low-cost skilled labour, low operation cost, and enough resources i.e. raw materials. US companies like General Electric started operation in China and Coca-Cola started in India and they became successful in these emerging market. Similarly, the evidence of reverse case also there like Tata Steel diversified to Europe and acquired Corus, the so called leading steel giant (Breslin, 2003, p.13-18). Market Selection vs. Market Attractiveness There are plenty of theory and model to analyse the international market selection. Market attractiveness is a measurement scale which qualitative ly measures a market for the demand of a particular product or brand. It always catalyses the market selection process towards a global market. Mostly applicable and effective theory of market selection is PESTLE analysis. It says that business environment of any country depends upon its six major components. These are Political: It represents how the government represents the economy and a certain business i.e. the way of representing and the extent. Political factor of a country represented by certain areas like taxation policy, labour law, trade restrictions, tariffs and govt. stability. So, market attractiveness towards foreign investors will be high if the entire areas of political environment are business-friendly. Economical: Economical factors are influenced and comprised by the economy of a country, and the World economy. These

Demand & Supply Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Demand & Supply - Essay Example is because of the fact that there is lack of new houses in Scotland that would be ready for sale and hence the prices of the existing properties are going up. Along with the demand in the housing properties, the demand for housing rental is also increasing simultaneously. The essay looks into the different aspects of demand and supply of housing and how the prices change in responses to the changes in the demand for properties for residence. The first part of the essay makes a general discussion of the theories underlying the demand and supply for a commodity. The later part looks at the various aspects of the theories applied to this article under consideration. Relevant figures have been provided to support the essay. The quantity demanded is the amount of product that the consumers are willing to pay at the market determined price. The law of demand states that as the price of the products increase the demand for the products decreases and when the price of the product decreases the quantity demanded of the product increase, other things remaining constant (Samuelson and ‎ Nordhaus, 2010). This inverse relation between the price and the quantity demanded is shown with the help of the figure below. In the figure it can be seen that when the price of the product is P2 the quantity demanded is Q2. When the price of the product increases to P1 the quantity demanded reduces to Q1. On the other hand when the price decreases to P3 the quantity demanded increases to P3. This proves the inverse relationship. There are several factors that may affect the demand for the product. First of all, the changes in the price of the products may affect the demand for the product as demonstrated in the figure above. This would be a movement along the demand Secondly, if the income of the individuals increase there would be a shift of the demand curve outwards in the price quantity space. This means that the as the income of the individuals increase the quantity demanded would

Motivation and Leadership Effect on Job Performance Essay Example for Free

Motivation and Leadership Effect on Job Performance Essay Introduction Leadership and motivation traditionally play a very important role in the functioning of organizations. Nowadays, the role of leadership and motivation increases even more significantly because of the growing competition and the increasing significance of human resources for the progress of organizations. In fact, it should be pointed out that leadership and motivation are closely entangled concepts which constitute an important part of the success of an organization. It is obvious that the effective leadership and motivation can contribute to the progress of an organization, while poor leadership and the lack of motivation can weaken the normal functioning of an organization and lead to the crisis within an organization that will naturally affects its performance. In this respect, it is important to underline the fact that leadership and motivation affect considerably the organizational behavior and culture and they define the formation of the effective relationships between the personnel of an organization. In such a situation, it is necessary to fully reveal the significance of leadership and motivation in the current business environment in order to assess adequately perspective of the improvement of the effectiveness of leadership and motivation within an organization. At the same time, the analysis of theoretical framework only, it appears that insufficient for the understanding of the significance of leadership and motivation for the performance of an organization. Consequently, it is also necessary to pay a particular attention to the practical aspects of leadership and motivation  that means that it is necessary to analyze some practical examples that could reveal the significance of leadership and motivation for the performance of a n organization Review of Literature Motivation and Job Performance * The level of performance of employees relies not only on their actual skills but also on the level of motivation each person exhibits (Burney et al., 2007). * Motivation is an inner drive or an external inducement to behave in some particular way, typically a way that will lead to rewards (Dessler, 1978). * Over-achieving, talented employees are the driving force of all firms so it is essential that organizations try hard to motivate and hold on to the best employees (Harrington, 2003). * The quality of human resource management is a critical influence on the performance of the firm. Concern for strategic integration, commitment flexibility and quality, has called for attention for employee’s motivation and retention. Financial motivation has become the most concern in today’s organization, and tying to apply Maslow’s basic needs, non-financial aspect only comes in when financial motivation has failed. * According to Greenberg and Baron (2003, 2000) definition of motivation could be divided into three main parts. The first part looks at arousal that deals with the drive, or energy behind individual (s) action. People turn to be guided by their interest in making a good impression on others, doing interesting work and being successful in what they do. The second part referring to the choice people make and the direction their behavior takes. The last part deals with maintaining behavior clearly defining how long people have to persist at attempting to meet their goals. * Motivation can be intrinsic and extrinsic. Extrinsic motivation concerns behavior influenced by obtaining external rewards (Hitt, Esser, Marriott, 1992). Praise or positive feedback, money, and the absence of punishment are examples of extrinsic or external rewards (Deci, 1980). Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something simply for the pleasure of performing that particular activity (Hagedoorn and Van Yperen, 2003). Examples of intrinsic factors are interesting work, recognition, growth, and achievement. *  Several studies have found there to be a positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and job per formance as well as intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction (Linz, 2003). This is significant to firms in todays highly competitive business environment in that intrinsically motivated employees will perform better and, therefore, be more productive, and also because satisfied employees will remain loyal to their organization and feel no pressure or need to move to a different firm. * Deci and Ryan (2000) conducted and replicated an experiment that showed the negative impact of monetary rewards on intrinsic motivation and performance. A group of college students were asked to work on an interesting puzzle. Some were paid and some were not paid for the work. The students that were not being paid worked longer on the puzzle and found it more interesting than the students being paid. When the study was brought into a workplace setting, employees felt that their behavior was being controlled in a dehumanizing and alienating manner by the rewards. It was discovered that rewards would seriously decrease an employees motivation to ever perform the task being rewarded, or one similar to it, any time in the future. Another observation of the study was that employees would expect a reward every time the task was to be completed if the reward was offered at one time. Employees would require the reward in order to perform the job and would probably expect the reward to increase in amount. If the rewards were not increased or if they were taken away they actually served as negative reinforcement. * Deci and Ryan (2001), in collaboration with two of their colleagues, conducted a study to examine the effects of performance-contingent rewards on an employees intrinsic motivation. * (Cameron, Deci, Koestner, and Ryan, 2001). These types of rewards are very controlling since these rewards are directly associated with an employees performance of some task. In that respect, performance-contingent rewards undermine intrinsic motivation; however, if the reward given to the employee conveys that the employee has performed on a truly outstanding level, the reward would serve to solidify that employees sense of competence and decrease the negative effect on that employees intrinsic motivation. Also significant in the study was the importance of the interpersonal atmosphere within which the performance-contingent rewards were distributed. * When Cameron et al. (2001) compared the administering of rewards in a controlling climate and in  a non-controlling climate, they discovered that the performance-contingent rewards given in the more controlling interpersonal climate undermined intrinsic motivation. To prevent the decrease in employees intrinsic motivation, the interpersonal climate when distributing performance-contingent rewards should be more supportive. * Vroom (1964) proposes that people are motivated by how much they want something and how likely they think they are to get it he suggest that motivation leads to efforts and the efforts combined with employees ability together with environment factors which interplay’s resulting to performance. This performance interns lead to various outcomes, each of which has an associated value called Valence. * Adams (1965) on his part suggests that people are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for high performance. According to him the outcome from job includes; pay recognition, promotion, social relationship and intrinsic reward. To get these rewards various inputs needs to be employed by the employees to the job as time, experience, efforts, education and loyalty.He suggests that, people tend to view their outcomes and inputs as a ratio and then compare these ratios with others and turn to become motivated if this ratio is high. Leadership Effectiveness and Job Performance Leadership, or more specifically effective leadership, is every bit as crucial (if not more so) in African Organizations as it is throughout the world. African organizations are no different from others Worldwide in terms of striving for performance in order to be globally competitive. The South African situation, however, is incredibly complex as many organizations are caught in the middle of a web of authoritarian hierarchies and traditional leadership approaches, as well as bureaucratic hierarchies mixed with modern approaches to leadership * (Grobler, Wà ¤rnich, Carrell, Elbert and Hatfield, 2002). It is argued that effective leadership has a positive influence on the performance of organizations (Maritz, 1995; Bass, 1997; Charlton, 2000). Ultimately it is the performance of many Individuals that culminates in the performance of the organization, or in the achievement of organizational goals. Effective leadership is  instrumental in ensuring organizational performance. * (Cummings and Schwab, 1973; Hellriegel, Jackson, Slocum, Staude, Amos, Klopper, Louw and Oosthuizen, 2004). As a result, many leadership theories have been proposed in the last fifty years which are claimed to have influenced the overall effectiveness of the organizations where they have been employed. In the competitive world business environment it is vital that organisations employ leadership styles that enable organisations to survive in a dynamic environment. * (Maritz, 1995; Bass,1997) Performance has been defined by Hellriegel, Jackson and Slocum (1999) as the level of an individual’s work achievement after having exerted effort. * Cummings and Schwab (1973) and Whittenand Cameron (1998) believe that performance is ultimately an individual phenomenon with environmental variables influencing performance primarily through their effect on the individual determinants of performance – ability and motivation. * Behling and McFillen (1996) confirmed the link between high performance and leadership in the United States by developing a model of charismatic/transformational leadership where the leaders’ behaviour is said to give rise to inspiration, awe and empowerment in his subordinates, resulting in exceptionally high effort, exceptionally high commitment and willingness to take risks. It has been widely accepted that effective organizations require effective leadership, and organizational performance will suffer in direct proportion to the neglect of this (Maritz, 1995; Ristow, Amos and Staude, 1999).

Effect of Health Inequalities on Children

Effect of Health Inequalities on Children Introduction Children, defined generally as those individuals who are below the age of 18 years old (Definition of the Child, 2000), have yet to rise to their functions and roles in society. According to a census made last 2002, children 0-14 years of age were shown to comprise about 2 billion of the global population and outnumbered all the other age groups. The study has also made projections of the group population and dictates that the children age group will remain relatively constant at 30% up until the next fifty years (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). A clear sign of wellness and health in society is evidenced by healthy children, making communities more dynamic. This paper has the objective of discussing the current condition of health care which influences their general well-being in a large and significant way. The report also took into significant consideration economic status as an important determinant of the childs environment. The study attempts to respond to the question: How does the wellness of children living in a poor nation differ from those in affluent nations? There will also be a discussion about the plans that are aiming for the improvement of the system at health care, such as the newly revised Healthy People 2010 (Donatelle, 2006), and the inclusion of theoretical viewpoints. A report that utilizes these collections of empirical, scientific and systematic knowledge and data from previous studies ensures more objective and valid assertions. Recommendations on the possible courses of action that focus on aspects of children health care towards authentic healthcare transformation are cited. This report of a closer examination of the health care system delivered to children is directed to Dr. Sutherland. Ultimately, the purpose of this study is to come up with an aggregation of relevant information about child health care, including their implications on the well-being of the child. Background Maroubra Child Care Centre is committed to the provision of high quality childcare to all children and families at the centre. Maroubra Child Care Centre has typically used health and wellness conversely. In actual sense, the centre has defined the two terms differently in different circumstances. Unlike before, however, Maroubra Child Care Centre now has a higher standard for health not merely regarding it as the absence of sickness (Donatelle, 2006). Throughout this report, health has been defined as the dynamic process of accomplishing possible capacity in each person on the dimensions of health. Wellness will be defined as the actualization of the optimum level of the dimensions of health (Donatelle, 2006). To achieve wellness, Maroubra Child Care Centre is much successful at achieving the dimensions of health-physical health, intellectual health, social health, emotional health, environmental health and spiritual health. Each of the dimensions has been characterized as complimen tary to one another. A child could not be considered as being healthy with failure to attain one of the dimensions (Donatelle, 2006). Therefore, the attainment of the well-being of children necessitates that Maroubra Child Care Centre staff is properly educated on the six dimensions of health and how each dimension may be addressed pragmatically. Discussion Physical health is the most familiar concept of health that children have. This is the most fundamental dimension in which they consider the attributes, conditions and capabilities of childrens body (Donatelle, 2006). To attain success in the other dimensions, children must achieve physical well-being. Additionally, intellectual health is defined as childrens capacity for reasoning, analysis, learning or any ability of the brain which we efficiently use every day. An intellectually capable child would not only be successful in learning from experiences or analyzing life situations but could effectively come up with solutions to any difficulties that arise. Children must be equipped with this ability. Social health pertains to chioldrens ability to establish effectively relate and interact with other children and other people as well as cope with changes in the social environment (Donatelle, 2006). A child for that matter is in need of this dimension as a functioning unit which Maroub ra Child Care Centre staff has been educated upon to provide to the society. Emotional well-being arises from emotional health. It involves childrens capability to control and respond with the right emotions to situations in their life. This is also very crucial for the well-being of a child because it includes their feelings of confidence, love and trust for theselves and for others. Environmental health is the centres concern for the state of childrens environment as individuals who have the obligation to maintain, guard, and develop it (Donatelle, 2006). The Maroubra Child Care Centre staff, is well acquainted with the notion that, in Children who have been properly cared for and have achieved holistic well-being are aware of their responsibility to the continuity of the environment, hence have been educated to ensure that this objective is attained in their children. Finally, spiritual health, which refers to childrens faiths in a supreme being, feeling of being united with his or her environment and sense of life value, completes the well-being of a child (Donatelle, 2006). The centre has taken spiritual health dimension to assist their children in realizing their purpose and experience emotions that make for an even deeper, grander and richer way of life. To effectively pinpoint the faults in Maroubra Child Care Centre system for the children, it is good to look at the current conditions of dthe society as a whole. According to a past publication, the centre raise children in a culture of impatience and undoubtedly, this have negative effects on them (Neville, 1999). Examining Maroubra Child Care Centre, the centre is still at the age, where technology has been swiftly advancing and peoples beliefs are inevitably evolving, children have grown addicted to the rapid acceleration of life. Children fail to receive proper nutrition because their parents have to work, which leads back to the desire to save in order to purchase things that are sometimes considered not necessary, rather than following trends outlined in Maroubra Child Care Centre. How could then children be raised with well-being? The effect that is quite disturbing is how parents and guardians are able to throw away relationships so quickly. Divorces and separations have bee n commonplace in the community. What then, will become of the children? Growing up would be difficult where children could be tossed around like a ping-pong ball, back and forth between their parents and there is proof for that. In a survey for industrialized countries, there was a prevalence rate of 7% to 15% of mental illnesses among children under 13 years of age (McMurray, 2007 At a Maroubra Child Care Centre, they have a longer list of problems that needs to be resolved. If Westernization is not their rival in raising healthy children, it is poverty and lack of health teaching and support from the government for pregnancy, child birth and parenting among countries especially underdeveloped ones (McMurray, 2007). This triggers a chain reaction-both parents are forced to work while the children are raised by other care provider which affects their sense of belongingness and trust causing them to become more stressed or aggressive. ). In dealing with such like problems, the Maroubra Child Care Centre management committee has been organizing seminars for their staff to be educated on how to handle such like societal problems. Fortunately, Maroubra Child Care Centre has noticed the dilemma. Some actions have begun for prevention of exposure of children to any harmful factors and realize childrens well-being. A huge chunk of the percentage of childhood injuries or deaths has been prevented by raising awareness in the family. The centre has properly educated child care providers by providing instructions in its websites. It has also helped resolving this issue with conducting researches and studies to broaden their knowledge (McMurray, 2007). In response to that, they have improved their concern in comprehensive programs in areas such as smoking, proper nutrition and quality of health services (Donatelle, 2006). Health promotion programs are being directed towards the reduction of negative health behavior and promotion of positive change. Included also in these programs is the prevention of disease. The management has also been assigned to accomplish this task by educating its staff as well as other workers who are be able to competently create, put into action, and examine programs for disease prevention. However, this program is being faced with some difficulties as prioritization of disease prevention, has been neglected in the past (Donatelle, 2006). There is a considerably long list of accomplishments in the Maroubra Child Care Centre system that benefits childrens well-being. To start with, immunization has successfully reached and surpassed the goals which were set by the centre, (Murray, 2007). Included and worth mentioning are the achievements of the CDCs goals in Maroubra Child Care Centre, which are safety in the use of motor vehicles and in the workplace, management of infections, cardiovascular disease, clean and nutritious foods, maternal and infant care, setting up of services for family planning, fluoridated drinking water and identification of smoking as a hazardous habit (Donatelle, 2006). As a result, they have been able to save countless lives from an otherwise preventable death. In achieving the dimensions, the staff is well educated in provision of a safe, nurturing environment which is much inclusive and how to respect cultural differences and diversity with no gender bias. The staff has been trained on how to work with other professionals along with families to cater for any child who needs additional care. They know that all children are unique individuals who are able to learn and develop through the process of exploration within an educational play based curriculum. They are acquainted with the childrens interests and caters for their interests, weaknesses and strength. As an effect, they all aim at encouraging language, mathematics, and social as well as physical skills. Conclusion The adequacy of child health care is indeed questionable as Maroubra Child Care Centre. Even with success in the implementation of the plans, the department that governs these actions responding to the situation of childrens health must not feel contentment. The centre initiative (Donatelle, 2006) sets goals that merely elevate a targeted population above an alarming level but not completely transcends society into the marker for health and well-being especially among children. Furthermore, conducting research and establishing guidelines by the centre (Donatelle, 2006) is not sufficient. They must be able to extend this knowledge to the majority of the health care providers of children, if not all. Otherwise, their efforts would be trivial. Depending on which theoretical perspective the centre applies, the hierarchy of power over health differs. Using a Marxist, Parsons and Foucault view point, the major allocation of power over social health is on the established and dominant structures. The other theories viewed individuals with more power than the previous theory and have more control by making compromises with the strong social structures (Grbich, 1999). The last relevant theory would be the postmodern/post structural theory where the possibility of a fair and equal society is attainable therefore the centre need to be more flexible and develop different aspects of health operations (Grbich, 1999). The centres management has to build a health system that is close if not precisely the equivalent of a post structural society where every child has equal not equivocal rights to care for their health and well-being. Recommendations Having a huge influence on the people in the society, the centre should use its power to create policies or support systems that will provide for all the childrens health and wellness. They should focus and improve on public health issues such as administering free vaccinations on a larger scale and establishing safety standards in the workplace (Donatelle, 2006). Everything can eventually be traced back to the most fundamental unit of society, the family. Even before children are part of society, they begin their lives as part of a family composed of them and the parents. While it would be convenient to believe that, adults can easily perceive or determine what the young ones are experiencing, that is not always the case. They concentrate on the physical health of a child while mostly fail to address the emotional needs which will be successfully succeeded by the other dimensions of health such as social and mental health (Hood, 2009). It would be better for the centre to educate parents on how they can identify meaning of some subtle cues that they subconsciously send out. Furthermore, they need to adults must be cautious with the use of simple, almost commonplace lectures such as you should be ashamed of yourself. It has been shown that their children have a barrier for them in handling their emotional well-being (Sorin, 2004). As a result, the centre has to search for a better way to deal with emotions such as sadness or fear should be done to ensure the holistic well-being of a child. For instance, learning to welcome their feelings by acknowledging, empathizing, discussing or even creatively role play with their children (Sorin, 2004). A common mistake that leads to an emotionally distressed child is when caretakers say things will be okay. Of course, realistically this does not hold as a reality. A more appropriate way to help the child is saying that they can find an approach to manage their emotion (Sorin, 2004). According to Hood, every childs well-being has been established on how emotionally healthy he or she is. Starting from infancy, children have been trying to connect to their caretakers to feel the security that he or she requires as a basic human need (Hood, 2009). To begin deve loping the well-being for children with education and training about proper health practices, it should be a first concern raised in the centre.

Medical Revolutions :: essays research papers

The Civil War started as a picnic and ended in compassion, but in between were four hideous years of twisted flesh, burning fevers, rampant pus, and oozing raw stumps. Never before had America faced even a hint of such agony and the way it responded to the occasion is fascinating history. In a very real sense the War Between the States brought forth a medical revolution and, perhaps above all, an awareness of public health. The terrible, swift scalpel became less terrible: and the dank, dirty, dingy pesthouse evolved into a pavilion of hope. Nursing, dentistry, and pharmacy also experienced a renaissance and the art and science of military medicine was projected into the future. The man of medicine who served in the Civil War was, whether he liked it or not, first and foremost a surgeon and always referred to as such. Though his first knife may well have been government issued, he learned the tricks of the trade in due course and sometimes became quite an expert. â€Å"Do your best† was the general idea, and most surgeons did, or at least tried. Nearly all the older doctors had received their education on an apprenticeship basis but the younger men, those who made up the bulk of the army surgeons, usually held a medical school diploma along with an office internship. Little attention was paid to clinical instruction, and in most cases the laboratory was all but forgotten. Further, stethoscopes, thermometers, syringes, and the like were widely used in Europe while many doctors here at home had never seen them let alone used them. In regard to ability and competence, there is no reason to believe the doctors in the North and the South differed in any significant way. While the North was home to more prestigious medical institutions, the South was learning to become less dependent on the North in this area at the outbreak of the war. A number of schools became established. Whether good, bad, or indifferent, the doctors were needed and just about every device was tried to keep up supply, a task compounded by frequent absenteeism. This situation was by no means peculiar to the medical people, for many others in the Civil War had the habit of picking up their blankets and heading back to the old homestead. This is exactly the case for Inman in the novel, Cold Mountain, by Carles Frazier.

2001 USA Patriot Act is Unconstitutional and Ineffective Essays

I. Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks US Congress passed legislation known as the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 commonly known as the USA Patriot Act. This paper will attempt to prove that not only is the USA Patriot Act unconstitutional but many of its provisions do nothing at all to protect Americans from the dangers of terrorism. While this act made legislative changes that increased surveillance and the investigative powers of law enforcement agencies to protect America from further terrorist acts, the passing of the USA Patriot Act has reduced the privacy rights of Americans and also does not provide for a system of checks and balances that safeguard civil liberties. Terrorism is a serious matter that should not be handled lightly, but the act has gone over the top in trying to stop terrorism. The USA Patriot Act, enacted for protecting America from further attacks, not only does little if anything to protect Americans, but rather undermines their civil rights. The Patriot Act targets not only terrorists, but also the American people which it intended to protect. This paper will primarily speak of the violations of the First and Fourth Amendments and the lack of checks and balances in relation to the USA Patriot Act. II. Background   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the September 11th terrorist attacks, America was understandably frightened that this could happen again. Less than a week after the attacks the Bush administration introduced legislation that included items which had previously been voted down, sometimes repeatedly, by Congress. (Surveillance Under the USA Patriot Act) The Senate version of the Patriot Act, which closely resembled the legislation requested by Attorney General John Ashcroft, was sent straight to the floor with no discussion, debate, or hearings. Many Senators complained that they had little chance to read it much less analyze it before having to vote. In the House, hearings were held, and a carefully constructed compromise bill emerged from the Judiciary Committee. But then, with no debate or consultation with rank-and-file members, the House leadership threw out the compromise bill and replaced it with legislation that mirrored the Senate version. Neither discussion nor amendments were permitted, and once... ... feel rushed as they did with the signing of this Act. Congress should review some of the terminology in the Act such as the definition of ‘Domestic terrorism’ to ensure we are not inadvertently including innocent individuals under the name of national security.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There should be a system of checks and balances where congress must review the methods the FBI, CIA and other law enforcement agencies are using in relation to wire taps, search warrants etc. Congress must ensure that the intelligence gathered is used in connection with terrorists and not just criminals in general.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  States and the private sector should get more involved in security at the airports, banking procedures and surveillance so that the federal government does not have complete control and overstep their boundaries.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, the idea behind the 2001 USA Patriot Act was a solid one made in a time of extreme duress and fearfulness. Now that we have had time to readjust and really look at the consequences of this act, it is time to reevaluate and pass into law a modified version to keep in line with what our forefathers believed for our country.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

AIDS and Needles Essay

Becton Dickinson, one of the largest manufacturers of medical supplies, dominates the US market in disposable syringes and needles. In 2005, a nurse, Maryann Rockwood (a fictional name), used a Becton Dickinson 5cc syringe and needle to draw blood from a patient known to be infected with HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus). Ms. Rockwood worked in a clinic that served AIDS patients, and she drew blood from these patients several times a day. After drawing the blood on this particular day, she transferred the HIV-contaminated blood to a sterile test tube by sticking the needle through the rubber stopper of the test tube, which she was holding with her other hand. She accidentally pricked her finger with the contaminated needle. She is now HIV positive. A few years earlier, in 2000, Becton Dickinson had acquired exclusive rights to a patent for a new syringe that had a moveable protective sleeve around it. The plastic tube around the syringe could slide down to safely cover the needle. The Becton Dickinson 5cc syringe used by Maryann Rockwood in 2005, however, did not yet have such a protective guard built into it. The AIDS epidemic has posed peculiarly acute dilemmas for health workers, including doctors and nurses. Doctors performing surgery on AIDS patients can easily prick their fingers with a scalpel, needle, sharp instrument, or even bone fragment and can become infected with the virus. The greatest risk is to nurses, who, after routinely removing an intravenous system, drawing blood, or delivering an injection to an AIDS patient, can easily stick themselves with the needle they were using. Needlestick injuries occur frequently in large hospitals and account for about 80 percent of reported occupational exposures to HIV among health care workers. It was conservatively estimated in 2005 that about 64 health care workers were then being infected with HIV each year as a result of needlestick injuries. Although the fear of HIV had heightened concerns over needlestick injuries, HIV was not the only risk posed by needlestick injuries. Hepatitis B can also be contracted through an accidental needlestick. In 2000, the Centre for Disease Control (CDC) estimated, on the basis of hospital reports, that each year at least 12,000 health care workers are exposed to blood contaminated with the Hepatitis B virus, and of these 250 die as a  consequence. Due to underreporting, however, the actual numbers may be higher. In addition to Hepatitis B, needlestick injuries can also transmit numerous other viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections, as well as toxic drugs or other agents that are delivered through a syringe and needle. The total statistics on needlestick injuries in 2005 are disturbing, although the exact incidence of contamination is unclear. It was estimated that each year, in the United States alone, between 800,000 and 1 million needlestick injuries occurred in hospitals – of these, between 60,000 and 300,000 resulted in Hepatitis B infection. By one estimate, the risk of contracting HIV from a known contaminated needle could be as high as 1 in 1000, and the risk of contracting Hepatitis B, a serious and often life-threatening condition, could be as high as 1 in 6. These estimates would imply that as many as 600 to 1000 health care workers were at risk of contracting HIV and as many as 100,000 were at risk of contracting Hepatitis B. Several agencies stepped in to set guidelines for nurses, including the American Nursing Association, the CDC, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FAD), who all developed such guidelines. The most comprehensive guidelines were issued by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), who on December 6, 2001, required hospitals and other employers of health workers to (a) make sharps containers (safe needle containers) accessible to workers, (b) prohibit the practice of recapping needles by holding the cap in one hand and inserting the needle with  the other, and (c) provide information and training on needlestick prevention to employees.  The usefulness of these guidelines was controversial. Nurses work in high-stress emergency situations requiring quick action, and they are often pressed for time both because of the large number of patients they must care for and the highly variable needs and demands of these patients. In s uch workplace environments, it is difficult to adhere to the guidelines recommended by the agencies. For example, a high-risk source of needle sticks is the technique of replacing the cap on a needle (after it has been  used) by holding the cap in one hand and inserting the needle into the cap with the other hand. OSHA guidelines specifically warned against this two-handed technique of recapping and instead required that the cap be placed on a stable surface and the nurse use a one-handed spearing technique to replace the cap. (Note that recapping the needles in this more time consuming way presented no risk of needlestick injury to the user). As noted above however, nurses are often pressed for time (and are keenly aware of the added danger of walking around with an uncapped needles) and tend to take the ‘two-handed recapping shortcut’ when no suitable surface is readily available for the safer one-handed capping technique. This fact is known to Hospital administrators, who regularly warn against such practices, and offer ongoing training and retraining opportunities to their nursing staff. Several analysts suggested that the peculiar features of the nurse’s work environment made it unlikely that needlesticks would be prevented through mere guidelines alone: The problem was not the worker, but the design of the needle and syringe. Experts on needlestick injuries argued that, rather than trying to teach health care workers to use a hazardous device safely, the focus should be on the hazardous product design and that a whole new array of devices in which safety is an integral part of the design was required. Regulators also urged manufacturers to provide the health care worker with devices in which safety was built into the design. The risks of contracting life-threatening diseases by the use of needles and syringes in health care settings had been well documented since the early 1980s. Well over half of all the needles and syringes used by U.S. health care workers since 1980 were being manufactured by Becton Dickinson. Despite the emerging crisis, however, Becton Dickinson decided not to modify its syringes, although it did include in each box of needled syringes an insert warning of the danger of needlesticks and of the dangers of two-handed recapping. On December 23, 2000, the U.S. Patent office issued patent number 4,631,057 to Charles B. Mitchell for a syringe with a tube surrounding the body of the syringe that could be pulled down to cover and protect the needle on the syringe. At the time, at least four other patents for needle-shielding devices existed. As Mitchell noted in his patent application, those devices all suffered from serious drawbacks. One of them  would not lock the protective cover over the exposed needle, one was extremely complex, another was much longer than a standard syringe and difficult to use, and a fourth was designed primarily for use on animals. It was Mitchell’s assessment that his invention was the only effective, easily usable, and easily manufactured device capable of protecting users from needlesticks, particularly in emergency periods or other times of high stress. Unlike other syringe designs, Mitchell’s was shaped and sized like a standard syringe so nurses already familiar with standard syringe design would have no difficulty adapting to it. Shortly after Mitchell patented his syringe, Becton Dickinson purchased from him an exclusive license to manufacture it. A few months later, Becton Dickinson began field tests of early models of the syringe using a 3cc model. Nurses and hospital personnel were enthusiastic when shown the product. However, they warned that if the company priced the product too high, hospitals, with pressures on their budgets rising, could not buy the safety syringes. With concerns about HIV rising fast, the company decided to market the product. In 2001, with the field tests completed, Becton Dickinson had to decide which syringes would be marketed with the protective sleeves. Sleeves could be put on all of the major syringe sizes, including 1cc, 3cc, 5cc, and 10cc syringes. However, the company decided to market only a 3cc version of the protective sleeve. The 3cc syringes account for about half of all syringes used, although the larger sizes-5cc and 10cc syringes-are preferred by nurses when drawing blood. This 3cc syringe was marketed in 2002 under the trademarked name Safety-Lok Syringe. It was promoted as a device that â€Å"virtually eliminates needlesticks.† The 3cc safety syringe with the protective sleeve was sold in 2001 to hospitals and doctors’ offices for between 50 and 75 cents. By 2003, the company had dropped the price to 26 cents per unit. At the time, a regular syringe without any protective device was priced at 8 cents per unit and cost 4 cents to make. Information about the cost of manufactu ring the new safety syringe is unavailable but is estimated at between 13 and 20 cents each. The difference between the price  of a standard syringe and the price of the safety syringe was an obstacle for customers. To switch to the new safety syringe would increase the hospital’s costs for 3cc syringes by a factor of three. An equally important impediment to adoption was the fact that the syringe was available in only one 3cc size, and it was perceived to be of limited application. Hospitals are reluctant to adopt and adapt to a product that is not available for the whole range of applications the hospital must confront. In particular, hospitals often needed the larger 5cc and 10cc sizes to draw blood, and Becton Dickinson had not made these available with a sleeve. For 5 years, Becton Dickinson manufactured only 3cc safety syringes. During that period, Becton Dickinson did not license its new safety syringe technology to another manufacturer that might have produced a full range of syringe sizes. Most hospitals and clinics, including the medical facility where Maryann Rockwood worked at drawing blood from many patients with Hepatitis B or HIV, did not stock the Becton Dickinson safety syringe. Most nurses in the United States continued to use unprotected syringes. Maryann Rockwood sued Becton Dickinson, alleging that, because it alone had an exclusive right to Mitchell’s patented design, the company had a duty to provide the safety syringe in all its sizes, and that by withholding other sizes from the market it had contributed to her injury. The case was settled out of court.

Lou Gehrig

The sport of baseball has produced some legendary, iconic players since its inception in the late 1800s. However, there is one particular legend that stands out from the rest: Lou Gehrig. Lou Gehrig was one of baseball’s greats, had a record setting career and a life claimed by a disease bearing his name. When Lou benched himself in 1939, nobody, including himself, imagined he would be dead in just two short years. Lou Gehrig was born June 19, 1903 to Heinrich and Christina Gehrig, German immigrants. They made their home in Yorkville, in the Upper East Side of New York City and eventually moved to upper Manhattan when Lou was four. Shortly after settling in their new home, Lou received his first baseball glove, a catcher’s mitt, for Christmas at the age of five. At the park across the street from the Gehrig home, Lou would play baseball with the older children in the neighborhood. Even though Lou was only six, he was comparable in size to the other children as he was big and strong; a very husky fellow but very shy. Like the older children, Lou would arise at five each morning and play baseball in the park until it was time to go to school. In this park is where it began for Lou Gehrig (Hubler, 1941). By the time Lou entered Commerce High School he was a big, burly young man weighing nearly two hundred pounds with extremely broad shoulders. In the park, he could hit a baseball further than anyone around. However, Lou did not participate in baseball as a school sport; he considered himself an ordinary neighborhood sandlot player. At some point during Lou’s high school career, classmates told his teacher about how far he could hit a baseball. After hearing this information, the teacher demanded Lou show up at one of the scheduled high school baseball games. Lou did show up, heard all of the cheering, turned around, and went directly home. Lou was so terrified that he literally ran away from his first high school baseball game. The next day his teacher demanded that Lou show up for the next game and threatening a failing grade if he did not show up. Lou Gehrig was forever grateful for the teacher’s threat that day (Macht, 1993). Lou’s parents wanted him to attend college even though he wanted to work and earn money for the family. Fortunately, Christina worked for a fraternity house at Columbia University managed by the university’s athletic director. Because of this working relationship and a tremendous amount of studying, Columbia offered Lou an athletic scholarship and he accepted. Before the baseball season started, someone had advised Lou to go to Connecticut to play for Eastern League, a professional team, to gain more experience and he would be paid to play. While playing for the Eastern League, the Columbia University baseball coach discovered that Lou was playing professionally and therefore breaching his contract with Columbia. Lou was not allowed to play his entire freshman year as a consequence of breaching his contract (Macht, 1993). By Lou’s sophomore year at Columbia, his fielding was erratic but his hitting improved with much practice. He was dangerous and extremely wild as a pitcher and terrible in the outfield. Finally the manager placed Lou at first base where he needed only to catch direct throws or scoop up ground balls. His hitting continued to evolve and he was hitting the ball more than 420 feet. During this time at Columbia, professional league teams were taking notice of Lou and making offers. It was not until his mother fell ill that he accepted a $1500 bonus to join the New York Yankees and dropped out of Columbia University after two years (Hubler, 1941). The new Yankee immediately became frustrated with his newfound job. He practiced with the team, watched the other players, worked out in the bullpen and everything in between. However, he never played in a game. Finally, after several weeks of warming the bench, the Yankees manager called on Lou to pinch-hit for the pitcher during a game at Washington. He struck out. A few days later, during at game with St. Louis, Lou was sent to the plate again and hit a line drive for a double. The Yankee’s manager knew that Lou needed more playing exerpeience and decided to send him to Hartford, Connecticut, to play with the Hartford Club (Macht, 1993). Lou’s time in Hartford proved to be beneficial. In the short time he was there, he hit 69 home runs in 59 games. In September, the Yankee’s first baseman injured his ankle. The Yankees immediately sent for Lou to take injured first baseman’s place. Lou was finally in the Yankee’s line-up. The Yankees went on to win the pennant that season and for the third year in a row they were in the World Series. However, Lou had joined the Yankee line-up too late in the season. He was not eligible to play in the Series unless the opposing team’s manager would allow him to do so. Unfortunately, the manager of the opposition refused the request and Lou warmed the bench as he watched his team win the World Series for the first time. The 1927 season brought baseballs greatest team: The New York Yankees. The first six batters in the Yankee’s order made up Murderer’s Row with Babe Ruth in the 3rd position and Lou in the 4th or â€Å"clean-up† position. According to The 1927 NY Yankees (2011) the Yankees were â€Å"Graced with the batting phenomenon pair of Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig† (1927-Murderers’ Row, para. 2). Even though Babe Ruth had the most home runs during the 1927 season, Lou had the highest batting average of anyone on the famed Murderer’s Row. The Yankees went on to win 110 games and swept the Pirates in the World Series. The 1927 season also brought somewhat of a slugfest between Lou and the Babe. The fest was never anything but friendly between the two as they cheered each other on through the season. This slugfest was a brutal neck-and-neck, back-and-forth home run race. At times the two of them (sometimes referred to as the â€Å"Twins†) tied in home run hits, times when the Babe was ahead of Lou and other times when Lou was ahead of the Babe. This activity continued for nearly the entire 1927 season. During the last month of the season, Lou could not keep up with the Babe and eventually he fell behind him in the home run race. Lou ended the season with 47 home runs. Lou Gehrig had an astounding career with many achievements and records during his time with the New York Yankees. He played 2,130 consecutive games with the Yankees between the years of 1925 and 1939. This record stood for 56 years until it was broken in 1995. He became the first American League player to hit four homeruns in one game, won the Triple Crown in 1934 and inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1939 (CMG Worldwide, 2003). Lou currently holds several records in the world of baseball including Major League and team records for the New York Yankees. First, Major League records currently held by Lou Gehrig are four home run hits in one game, most grand slams (23) in a career, most runs batted in by a lefthander in one season, most seasons with 100+ runs batted in consecutively and most seasons with 150+ runs batted in consecutively (Baseball Almanac, Inc 2000-2011). Additionally, the current New York Yankees team records held by Lou include grand slams (23), hits resulting in double bases (534), hits resulting in triple bases (163), and runs batted in (1,995). Lou also holds several of the number two spots in the Yankees record books including second highest batting average, hits, home runs by a lefthander, on base percentage, runs scored, slugging average, and total bases (Baseball Almanac, Inc. 2000-2011). To say that Lou Gehrig had a good career with the Yankees is an understatement. The 1938 season brought some changes for Lou Gehrig. He was off to a slow start at the beginning and was not hitting like usual. By summertime several players from other teams were noticing that Lou was walking and running like an old man. It was also noted by some pitchers that Lou’s reflexes seemed to be slow, and although he was swinging the bat as hard as he always had, the balls were not going nearly as far. By the end of the season his batting average was down to .295. Lou had higher expectations of himself considering his .351 average the season before (Macht, 1993). In early 1939 Lou was determined to bounce back for the upcoming season but he was developing more trouble physically. He had fallen while fishing, had problems stepping off curbs, and small items would fall out of his hands. Finally, even thou Lou would not admit something was seriously wrong, in June he visited the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, where he underwent numerous tests. On June 19, 1939, his 36th birthday, his doctor gave him the diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a disease that attacks the nerve cells that control voluntary muscles (Hubler, 1941). Today this disease is also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. Lou benched himself May 2, 1939, just days prior to his diagnosis and never played for the Yankees again. By the spring of 1941 Lou was bedridden and started to have trouble breathing. Eleanor and her mother took care of Lou around the clock. By this time he could not swallow anything other than pureed food. On Monday, June 2, 17 days before his 38th birthday and exactly 16 years to the day he took over first base for the New York Yankees, Lou Gehrig passed way in his New York home with his family by his side including his devoted dog, Yankee (Macht, 1993). Lou Gehrig is a legend; a baseball icon. He was known as a decent, humble, shy and courageous man on and off the baseball field. He set many records during his career and faced his debilitating disease with nothing but courage. There will never be a number four Yankee’s jersey to grace a baseball field again because that number was for the one and only: Lou Gehrig.

Beauty Lies in the Eye of the Beholder

McNulty, J. , Neff, L. , Karney, B. (2008). Journal of Family Psychology. Beyond Initial Attraction: Physical Attractiveness in Newlywed Marriage, 22(1), 135-143. â€Å"Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder†. A famous statement that normally holds true. However, how long will this beauty last in the beholder’s eye? Will physical appearance affect a relationship over time as the relationship deepens and develops? A study was conducted by James K. McNulty, Lisa A. Neff, and Benjamin R. Karney attempting to answer how physical appearances continue to affect established relationship.The study was published in the â€Å"Journal of Family Psychology† in 2008 titled Beyond Initial Attraction: Physical Attractiveness in Newlywed Marriage. The primary reason for the study was to expand on prior studies of physical attractiveness which suggested that physical attractiveness should be connected with more positive outcomes in marriage. Apparently, many studies of physical a ttractiveness came about to support or over- throw two poets recognition on the period of physical attractiveness.Poet John Keats believes that the benefits of beauty are everlasting while poet G. B. Shaw believes that beauty is destined to fade over time. Different theories were also taken into consideration. Equity and similarity theories predict that attractiveness should be connected with greater levels of satisfaction and vice versa. Evolutionary perspectives and normative resource theories suggest that the gender of the more attractive partner should play an important role in determining the effects of different attractiveness.The author had cited clear review of literature and the problem was clearly visible to the average reader why the researchers felt this study needed to be done. With that said, this research tested hypothesis about whether physical attractiveness continues to influence relationships after marriage or fade with time and experience. The focus of the study was to obtain observer ratings of physical attractiveness, observer ratings of behavior, and self reports of satisfaction from a sample of recently married couples.Relative levels of attractiveness were then analyzed in order to understand the impact of each spouse’s attractiveness on how they compare with one another. Only newlyweds were selected for this particular study. The couples had to be recently married, were relatively around the same age, and were selected within the first 6 months of both partner’s first marriage. The selected 82 eligible couples went through a formal laboratory session and questionnaires before any experiments were conducted.To conduct the ratings of physical attractiveness, the researchers had to use the Quality Marriage Index, a six-item scale asking spouses to rate general statements about their marriage. Higher scores would reflect greater satisfaction with the relationship. To conduct ratings of behavior, trained raters had coded vide otaped discussions of support topics based on The Social Support Interaction Coding System. Every behavior such as speaking, turning, and gestures were recorded and analyzed.To conduct self reports of satisfaction, researchers rated the facial attractiveness of each spouse from the recorded videotapes. From a scale from 1 to 10, higher ratings indicated more attractive faces. The results of the study reflected the researchers’ expectations in newlyweds. According to the tables and data, both husbands and wives had relatively high level of marital satisfaction, there were more positive behaviors during their social support interactions, and their facial attractiveness were at the attractiveness scale.Further analyses were conducted on levels of physical attractiveness connected with outcomes of established relationships. Regression models were drawn separately for husbands and wives and the results indicated that the absolute levels of attractiveness were associated with both satisfaction and behavior. Surprisingly, findings shows that more attractive husbands tended to behave more negatively in an established relationship but neither the husbands’ nor wives’ supportive behavior was related with their partners’ attractiveness.Results indicate that relative attractiveness was a better predictor of behavior; thus, the analyses were consistent with the predictions derived from evolutionary and normative recourse theories. Both husband and wives behave more positively when the wives are more attractive than the husband, but more negatively when the husbands were more attractive than wives. It is believed that physical attractiveness is less important to the wives; thus, attractiveness may only affect them through the effect on husbands.The current study is consistent with Poet John Keats’ view where the attractiveness that brings people together will continue to influence relationships even after marriage. However, the way physica l appearances affects the relationship seems to change over time. The recommendations for the current study were to a call for additional research in the area. It is suggested to use larger samples with varying attractiveness. More variables in other indicators of attractiveness are definitely recommended as well. This was a very in-depth research project.For the most part it was well written and well organized. The methods use to gather the data for the study was clearly explained. The instruments and development were explained and all possible tests were given. The findings were well organized, sectioned, and reported objectively. The conclusions of the study were based on the findings and logically stated. The article did get a little complicated in the reporting of data due to the complicated statistical procedures used. Overall, it was a very interesting, significant contribution to the field of research in family psychology.

European Debt Crisis Essay Example

European Debt Crisis Essay Example European Debt Crisis Essay European Debt Crisis Essay Roger Williams University [emailprotected] Honors Theses RWU Theses 5-11-2011 The Financial Crisis and the European Network Georges G. Gautherin Roger Williams University, [emailprotected] rwu. edu This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the RWU Theses at [emailprotected] It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of [emailprotected] For more information, please contact [emailprotected] edu. Recommended Citation Gautherin, Georges G. , The Financial Crisis and the European Network (2011). Honors Theses. Paper 3. http://docs. rwu. edu/honors_theses/3 The Financial Crisis and the European Network Georges G. Gautherin II Bachelor of Arts International Relations Feinstein College of Arts and Sciences Roger Williams University May 2011 2 Table of Contents Abstract . 4 Lit Review . 5 Introduction Network 5 Economic Interdependence 8 Financial Crisis of 2007-2011 . 12 Analysis 3 The Unifying Factor 13 Greece 14 Ireland 19 Portugal . 2 Spain . 24 The United Kingdom . 26 France . 29 Germany 0 Implications for the Future .. 32 .. 35 3 Abstract The financial crisis between the years of 2007 and 2011 affected states everywhere both internally and in their interactions with one another. This essay seeks to focus upon European states and how they were able to recover from the financial crisis and how networking between and among the states evolved as a result of the economic crisis. The analysis for this essay will utilize a range of research materials to establish valid definitions for networking and economic interdependence in order to allow for a sound analysis of the networking between states during the 2007-2011 financial crisis. Due to the recent time period of the topic this essay will draw from both contemporary and older sources, including news articles, to aid in the analysis of the economic networks involving European states. 4 Lit Review Introduction It is the goal of this paper to understand the effects of the financial crisis within Europe, and what the future implications are for the nodes in the European network through economic interdependence. Through the use of key concepts established in the literature review, this paper will cultivate definitions which will form the basis for the argument that the nodes of the European network, for which the European Union serves as the center, are economically interconnected. Should the nodes prove to be economically interconnected, the financial crisis will be the point upon which their interconnectedness is tested, culminating in a strengthening of the economic ties between the nodes or a weakening, or disintegration, of economic interconnectedness between the nodes of the European network. Network The financial crisis of 2007-20110 is an event that has affected every state in the international system. Having spread throughout the world it is important to understand the ways in which states and transnational actors are connected and how this interdependence affects each member of the network. The concept of a network is one that has been around for some time- as actors have been interacting with one another. It is the foundation for all other theoretical concepts in international and transnational relations and as a result it is one that has attracted a large amount of research and analysis. In their article Network Analysis for International Relations the authors, Emilie M. Hafner-Burton, Miles Kahler, and Alexander H. Montgomery, put forth a 5 starting definition of network which they utilize for their writing: they claim networks are â€Å"a mode of organization which facilitates collective ction and cooperation, exercises influence, or serves as a means of international governance† (Hafner-Burton, Kahler, Montgomery 560). Furthermore, networks utilize nodes, which can be â€Å"individuals or actors, such as organizations and states† (562) and it is these nodes that will allow this paper to recognize those involved within the network. They bring forth a c oncrete definition of their own design of networks being â€Å"any set or sets of ties between any set or sets of nodes† (Hafner-Burton, Kahler, Montgomery 562). The second definition brought forth by Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery’s article is one that is both simple to understand and very accurate in its description. Combining their second definition with their explanation of nodes the reader is presented with a definition claiming that networks can include any number of state or non-state actors involving themselves through ties of any kind or number, including but not limited to political, economic, environmental or human rights ties. Whereas Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery present networks in a basic sense, describing them as including any number of actors, Thomas Risse, in his work Transnational Actors and World Politics, gives his own, more specifically defined, version of network which he defines as â€Å"forms of organization characterized by voluntary, reciprocal, and horizontal patterns† (255). From this we can come to an understanding of how a network is maintained; that it is not always characterized by voluntary patterns. It is possible for a state to be forced, against its will, to partake in a network or actions with a network as a result of military, political or economic actions by an aggressor state. The network may also extend beyond reciprocal 6 patterns between actors. There are situations where one actor may act in a manner that affects its allies directly and other states, with whom it has no direct ties, indirectly. In other words, the actions of state A influence the actions of state B which affect, in turn, the situation in state C. Thus state C is affected by state A even though the two states are not formally involved in an alliance or other specific international network. Closely resembling the definition set forth by Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery is Keohane and Nye’s description of networks, in regards to transnational relations, is the â€Å"contacts, coalitions, and interactions across state boundaries that are not controlled by the central foreign policy organs of governments† (Nye and Keohane 331). Furthermore they note that entities that arrive on the international scale that are non-states can become actors, implying that states as well can be actors; as a fact both state and non-state actors can engage in these networked interactions, according to Nye and Keohane (330). The use of Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery’s article will allow this paper to build the foundation for its analysis of the economic interdependence of the European state and non-state actors in responding to the financial crisis of 2007-2011, with its simple yet broadlyencompassing definition. The definition provided by Thomas Risse, while useful in its own right, does not entirely fit with the direction this paper seeks to take and is therefore discarded in favor of the definition provided by Keohane and Nye. Their definition is quite useful in that it suggests that actors participate in relations across state boundaries which should be made clear due to the fact that non-state actors could do business solely within the state, fulfilling the requirement of a tie 7 between two actors yet for the purpose of this paper a network focusing upon the international system is far more beneficial than one working only within one state. The concept of ‘networks,’ as utilized by this paper, is one that combines elements from Keohane and Nye and from the article by Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery; allowing this paper to define networks as â€Å"any set or sets of ties between any set or sets of nodes† (Hafner- Burton, Kahler, Montgomery 562), with nodes being states and/or non-state actors as described in their article, â€Å"interacting across state boundaries† (Nye and Keohane 330). With this definition of networks the paper can move forth and continue building its foundation. Economic Interdependence Whereas the concept of networks set forth above can be used in any instance in which there are interactions across state boundaries by various nodes this paper seeks to discover the effects of the financial crisis upon the economic interdependence between and among the nodes of the European network, how they were able to rise out of the recession and what the future may hold for the nodes’ economic interdependence. Therefore this paper must now address the effects of economic interdependence on the European network. For the literature researched economic interdependence has varying degrees of importance. In the case of Keohane and Nye, they define interdependence as simply â€Å"mutual dependence, referring to situations characterized by reciprocal effects among countries or among actors in different countries† (Keohane and Nye 8). It can be implied from this that a definition of economic interdependence involves mutual dependence economically meaning the exchange of currency, trade, supplies, and even workers between states and non-state actors. Keohane and 8 Nye though tend to focus upon economic interdependence as of secondary importance to political interdependence. Keohane and Nye utilize economic interdependence in Power and Interdependence to aid in the explanation of international regime change which occurs as governments â€Å"permit economic interdependence to grow† as a result of domestic pressure for â€Å"greater economic welfare† (Keohane and Nye 40). This regime change is therefore used to describe the after-effects of political interdependence and interaction as political and military actions are taken in vies for power post-war periods see a dramatic growth in state economies and international economic interdependence (Keohane and Nye 35-36). Whereas Keohane and Nye focused upon the political interdependence with economic interdependence a result of power and political plays by actors in a network, Zeev Maoz wrote on economic interdependence’s importance on peace between actors in a network. Maoz (274) states that the effect of economic interdependence on peace extends from the state to the system. States are reluctant to initiate conflict against enemies with whom they do not have direct trade ties because the uncertainty and instability associated with conflict may cause heir trading partner to look for other markets, thus adding to the direct cost of conflict. † As the states within a network become more interconnected, they are unable to commence conflict with states they do not have ties with due to the possibility of losing trade they currently have thereby increasing their vulnerability and putting them in a worse position then they were in previously. Utilizing his gathered data Maoz is able to discuss his analysis on the international community between 1870 and 2000 concerning dyadic networks-two nodes interacting with one another-and systemic networks-networks involving three or more nodes; the results of his analysis indicate that economic interdependence in both forms of network tended to â€Å"consistently reduce the 9 frequency†¦and probability of conflict† (277). In a prior chapter Maoz even mentions that the Great Depression had as one of its principal causes a â€Å"growing level of economic interdependence† (1). This statement greatly aids the paper in that it seeks to understand the future implications of economic interdependence on the European network as a result of the financial crisis of 2007-2011, which shows a great similarity in its breadth to the Great Depression and is viewed as one of the worst financial disasters since that event(Reuters). This will aid the paper due to the fact that the Great Depression is felt by many to have been a major contributing cause to World War II; an important fact to bear in mind as we look to the future following the current financial crisis. Maoz’s book, along with the data presented within, will go a long way to help this paper in its analysis of the effects of economic interdependence on the European network. The article Information and Economic Interdependence, by William Reed, greatly assists the analytical development of this paper; he asserts that â€Å"trade may enhance the probability that states settle their disagreement short of military conflict† which produces often undesired costs on both actors, and which may be too much for a potential aggressor to bear (55-57). Furthermore, he argues, it is through â€Å"information,† the distribution of knowledge of the costs of conflict and other crucial parameters in the actor’s value function, which states are able to assess the hazards of conflict with other actors connected to their node both directly or indirectly (Reed, 54-55). Where the literature from Keohane and Nye benefits this paper is in its description of the effects of economic interdependence granting the reader the knowledge that should a state feel vulnerable economically it may attempt military actions in order to rectify the situation. This was true of Japan’s actions in 1941 against the United States in an attempt to gain a resumption 10 in oil trade (Keohane and Nye 18). Furthermore, they note that should war threaten â€Å"international institutions will have a minor role† because states will feel an urent need to act out of self-interest (Keohane and Nye 35). Therefore should the economic interdependence of actors lead to conflict, non-state actors would lose power and influence in situations due to a lack of military power. Power and Interdependence will be useful in aiding this paper in arguing the effects of economic interdependence upon the European network and its nodes, yet this paper focuses upon economic interdependence which is not the principal concern of Keohane and Nye in the Power and Interdependence. This paper will seek to draw from Reed’s argument that trade between states may prevent disagreements from settle with military conflict, furthering the definitions presented from Keohane and Nye’s book, Power and Interdependence, and Maoz’s book. While both reed and Maoz present sound arguments and theoretical analyses of economic interdependence, the concept of economic interdependence utilize Keohane and Nye as its base in order to determine what the effects of the financial crisis of 2007-2011 will have upon the current European network, through the concept of economic interdependence. This paper seeks to understand what effects economic interdependence will have upon the European network after the financial crisis of 2007-2011 and, with the support of these pieces of literature, to discover whether the economic interconnectedness of the European network will be strengthened as a result of the financial crisis, or whether it will be weakened or destroyed as a result of the failure of the interconnectedness between the nodes. 11 Financial Crisis of 2007-2011 The financial crisis of 2007-2011 has been, as mentioned earlier in this paper, compared to the Great Depression as one of the worst financial crises in modern history. Yet some actors seem able to emerge from this crisis with renewed strength and vigor while others are being left behind, crying out for help. It is the goal of this paper to understand how these effects occurred and what the future implications are for those actors in the network through economic interdependence. With the plentiful information and data available due to the recent topic of this paper a firm answer can be very potentially be found. 2 Analysis The Unifying Factor The European Union, referenced throughout this paper as the European network, has been in existence for nearly two decades and is composed of twenty-seven member states, or nodes. These nodes are interconnected through a common European identity, yet a majority of these nodes are interconnected through a factor greater than simply being on the s ame continent; this factor connects their economies that provides a common identity, a feeling of unity, a level of security and stability and support between the nodes of the network; the euro (The Maastricht Treaty). As defined by Keohane and Nye in the literature review section, economic interdependence is the mutual dependence of nodes within a network, economically, in which there is an exchange of currency, trade, supplies, and even workers. The euro is a currency used by seventeen nodes in the European network and fits Keohane and Nye’s definition of being a currency that is shared by nodes. The adoption of the euro, though bringing with it benefits of support, stability, and interconnectedness, has some major disadvantages. One of these disadvantages is the forfeit of the right of an individual node to set its own interest rate. States with their own currencies can set interest rates in accordance with their specific needs, meaning that if their credit seemed â€Å"too loose, they could raise interest rates,† making credit easier to regulate and their economies potentially easier to stabilize(Samuelson). While such a right is convenient, the benefits granted under the adoption of the euro, namely the support and backing of the currency as well as an identity within a unified Europe, is viewed by many as a more important asset. 3 While the nodes have benefitted individually by using the euro, the financial crisis of 2007-2011 shows the extent to which the nodes as a whole are economically interconnected. The drastic increase in debt among the numerous nodes within the network, specifically Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain (which are the deficit nodes upon which this paper focuses), has caused fear, panic, and the realization that the euro, which previously boosted many economies within the network may now cause all who have been bound together to fall. It is feared that the increase in the deficit of one node within the network might cause a general belief that the euro is a weak currency, spreading doubt about its future, and a belief that if one node’s economy is able to fail while being supported by the euro it is entirely possible for the economies of other nodes to fail as well with â€Å"market panics jumping from one weak country to the next† (Steinhauser). The degree to which these nodes are interconnected is found to be evident through the attempted bailout plans made to save the failing deficit nodes and aid them in revitalizing their economies. Greece Among the first to fall into a nearly uncontrollable spiral of debt and deficit was Greece. This was not entirely surprising as Greece was one of the dominant targets of the Marshall Plan in 1947; an attempt to revitalize the economies of numerous European nodes, though the political reasoning behind the Marshall Plan differs vastly from the reasoning behind the bailout plans currently being developed (Kunz 163). The financial aid received more than sixty years ago did nothing to prevent Greece from succumbing to the financial crisis of 2007-2011. Knowing that mostly every node in the world was hit by this crisis it is important in to understand that it is not 14 solely Greece’s fault that it fell into a deficit. However, unlike most other nodes Greece has yet to come out of the recession that has sent her on a downward spiral. Some Greek officials see this point differently; they blame the â€Å"rest of Europe for not helping its crippling financial crisis† the representative of Greece failed to take any responsibility for being incapable of rising out of the financial crisis (â€Å"Greek Deputy PM in roadside over EU†). Many Greek citizens still believe that the German government owes the Greek government reparations for acts taken during World War II including those that led to a famine in Athens, killing approximately 250,000 people, Germany â€Å"stealing its [Greece’s] gold during World War II†¦for Kalavryta, for Distomo and 70 billion euro for the ruins they left† (Itano). Though the financial crisis has caused many in Greece to blame other states for their inability to work through the recession, somesuch as Greek Prime Minister George Papandreouhave cast aside the desire to blame others and have readily sought out solutions to their troubles. In an attempt to stave off growing debt, the Greek government sold â€Å"nearly $7 billion in bonds†¦giving the Greek government much-needed breathing room in its scramble for new loans;† though this action was quite proactive on the part of the Greek government it was not nearly enough (Kulish). A major effect of the financial crisis and the Achilles Heel of the Greek government was its turn towards austerity by promising increases in taxes and reductions in government spending (Jolly, David and Landon, Thomas Jr. ). Though such plans were designed to decrease the deficit by increasing revenues and cutting spending, they will not have that effect if they lead to a reduction in economic activity and growth. . This happened to be the result in Greece, where the Greek government â€Å"narrowly avoided bankruptcy last May [2010]† (AP). With the states of the European network united together through the use of the euro, as 15 previously mentioned, the failure of one state within the network could spell doom for the other states within the network. Greece could not be allowed to fail. In regards to Greece, Chancellor Angela Merkel said, â€Å"Action is needed to help prevent â€Å"a chain reaction that would contaminate the market†Ã¢â‚¬  (Jolly, David and Landon, Thomas Jr. ). In order to prevent Greece’s bankruptcy, discussions ensued for a bailout beginning with 30 billion euros from the E. U. itself and a potential 15 billion euros from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) making the total a loan of 45 billion Euros (Reguly). Quickly enough this plan offered too little to the debt-ridden state of Greece and the loan offer was increased to 110 billion euros â€Å"under an international bailout loan agreement† (AP). Throughout the bailout negotiations, Greece’s actions towards austerity, cutting spending and increasing taxes have put a heavy strain on individual citizens. These acts led to a drastic increase in unemployment throughout the financial crisis, from 7. 9% in 2008 to 10. 2% in 2009 and finally climaxing at 14. 1% by the end of 2010. The following graph shows the rate of unemployment for Greece as well as the other states focused upon in this paper: Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Portugal and Spain. 16 0% 6. 25% 12. 50% 18. 75% 25. 00% 2008 2009 2010 2011 Unemployment Percentage Year Germany France United Kingdom Greece Ireland Portugal Spain Figure 1 The unemployment percentage for European countries between the years 2008 and 2011. The dramatic increase in unemployment is one factor showing the continuing decline of the Greek government’s reputation, furthering its inability to save itself or its citizenry as debt mounts. Despite its public commitment to reform, through cutting spending and increased taxation, the Greek government’s budget deficit continued to rise through most of the financial crisis, finally seeing a decrease in 2010. 7 Figure 2 Tracking of Greece’s gross domestic product (GDP) in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million euros). The decrease in the budget deficit in 2010 shows that the bailout has in some small way aided Greece in stabilizing her economy. However, this does not mean that Greece is no longer in danger of bankruptcy, which remains the case throug h 2010 and into 2011 (Inman). Figure 2 notes that in 2007 the Greek government spent 106. 4% of its GDP, in 2008 she spent 109. % of her GDP, spiking in 2009, when Greece nearly declared bankruptcy, to an expenditure of 115. 4% of GDP. This fell in 2010, with the aid of the bailout package, to 110. 5% of GDP. The possibility of Greece defaulting remains, though some experts believe it may be more beneficial to allow a default to occur, enabling the loans to be restructured â€Å"easing the terms of the loans and possibly writing off a portion altogether;† such a proposal would be considered only if the debt was deemed nearly impossible to manage (Chu). While such an action would enable the debt to become more manageable, even to the point that a reduced debt could be paid off, it would have dire consequences for Greece and the other nodes of the European network. Chu quotes Greek Finance Minister George Papaconstantinou saying â€Å"forcing creditors to take â€Å"haircuts,† or losses, would devastate Greek banks, which hold a major share of their 220,000 235,000 250,000 265,000 280,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 18 country’s debt and potentially set off a wider panic. Furthermore, a â€Å"prominent member of the European Central Bank said a Greek debt restructuring would be a disaster for the Eurozone with knock-off effects on banks in France, Britain and Germany that hold Greek debt† (Inman). Greece’s crisis is not one that will be solved overnight, as can be seen by its year long struggle to prevent bankruptcy and default on the loans granted to her by the other nodes within the European network. Greece’s flirtation with bankruptcy and default show the weakness in her government and its inability to stabilize the economy and stimulate growth. Yet the nodes within the network continually bail Greece out of trouble preventing her from falling into bankruptcy or defaulting. The nodes within the network do not want to see Greece default because that would limit investors’ faith in the euro, create a pit in which all excess funds would be drawn in order to save a floundering Greece and the strength of the euro would wane as it was seen to be too weak to keep nodes from falling into bankruptcy. Any action that would represent a failure on the part of the euro is something the European network strives avidly to avoid. Under a worst-case scenario, the failure of one or multiple nodes could mean the failure of the entire euro network. Ireland Despite fervent attempts by the nodes to prevent a contagion effect within the network, Ireland was the next to seek assistance in November 2010, after Greece had sought aid through a bailout from neighbor nodes earlier in the year. After a burst in the housing bubble and poor credit loans to its citizens, Ireland began to suffer the same fate as Greece: a mounting debt and government deficit which put the banks into an unstable state (Steinhauser). Such an effect is described as ironic in that â€Å"until recently, it was admiringly dubbed the Celtic Tiger for emulating Asian countries in attracting foreign investment†¦and achieving rapid export-led 19 growth† (Samuelson). The downfall of this node, despite its small size, indicates that no matter the growth and potential of an economy within the European network, financial crisis and mounting debt can plague any node that is unprepared for such a storm. As can be seen throughout the European network, unemployment rose as the nodes attempted to consolidate funds to stave off deficit and debt. In Ireland, Figure 1, the unemployment rose from 8% in 2008 to 12. 8% in 2009 and reached a level of 14. 5% in 2010, making the unemployment rate in Ireland slightly greater than in Greece. Ireland, in an attempt to put an end to her financial crisis, fell prey to the same trap that ensnared Greece, austerity. As debt and deficit rose Ireland attempted to cut spending and increase taxes. In a manner comparable to Greece, this policy did the opposite of what was intended. Instead of reducing the eficit, it increased it by putting more of the country’s citizenry out of work. Instead of stimulating the economy, it had the effect of â€Å"undermining desperately needed economic growth† (Steinhauser). The result is a node that began the financial crisis with a 128 million euro budget surplus and fell to a 13,196 million euro budget deficit in 2008, a 22,795 million euro deficit in 2009 and a 49,903 million euro deficit in 2010. This translates to spending 107. 3 percent of t he GDP in 2008, 114. 3 percent of the GDP in 2009 and 132. percent of the GDP in 2010, making it the node with the highest GDP budget deficit percentage in the network; such a statistic does not inspire confidence in a node that cannot get its economy under control and stabilized. 20 Figure 3 Tracking of Ireland’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million euros). As the crisis steadily worsened, Ireland avidly sought to avoid a bailout. It sought to sort out its problems without the aid of the other nodes in the European network. Against Ireland’s desires, the â€Å"finance ministers of the Eurozone gathered in Brussels†¦determined to push Dublin into accepting help now† (Wearden, Graeme and Julia Kollewe). The actions taken by the finance ministers of the neighboring nodes so quickly after a downturn in Ireland’s situation brings to the forefront the recognition that the financial crisis is not over and is in fact spreading further and faster than previously anticipated. It is evident that the nodes of the European network do not desire the financial crisis to spread. Their goal is to shore up the debt, isolate the problems, and enact resolutions that would cause the economies of the nodes to return to normal and to restore public faith in the euro. The mounting pressure led to a negotiation with Ireland in which she accepted a rescue package of nearly 90 billion euros from the members of the European network in order to â€Å"prop up Ireland’s loss-ridden banks† (Samuelson). With these funds in hand, Ireland must now institute policies that will foster economic growth while limiting the extent of austerity programs until her economy can be stabilized. 0 52,500 105,000 157,500 10,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 21 The crucial factor in the financial crisis occurring in Ireland is the speed with which Ireland was pressured into accepting a bailout package. This is due largely to the fact that, once the situation in Ireland worsened, thoughts immediately turned to Portugal. The Portuguese warned the member node s of the European network that their node â€Å"was at risk of a possible contagion† (Moya). The quickly spreading contagion is forcing the nodes to band together to attack the threat head on in an attempt to halt the problem before it goes any further. While the actions taken to aid Ireland were swift, they were neither a preemptive strike, nor a comprehensive solution to the problem. The danger to the interconnected euro network remains. Portugal In November, as Ireland’s economy faltered and steps by the other nodes within the European network were taken to prevent a contagion effect throughout the network, Portugal highlighted the possibility that it too would need assistance from the members of the European network. Like Ireland, the state’s leaders refused to accept a bailout plan unless all other options were no longer viable. With a cost of borrowing of more than 7%, due to â€Å"the market’s lack of confidence† in Portugal’s economy, according to Moya, and political division preventing â€Å"a new set of austerity measures designed to ease a huge debt burden that is crippling the economy† Portugal continued to falter under an increasing debt and government deficit (Hatton). According to Figure 1 Portugal, just like every other state, saw an increase in unemployment through the course of the financial crisis. However, of the great debtor nodes, Portugal’s’ unemployment rate remained the lowest. It grew only from 7. 9% in 2008, to 10. 2% in 2009, and finally to 11% in 2010 This can be explained by the fact that Portugal had a lower budget deficit than either Ireland or Greece throughout the financial crisis and was the last of the three to 22 ask for assistance; thus, Portugal was able to stave off the worst of the crisis and avoid a bailout longer than the other two. Figure 4 Tracking of Portugal’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million euros). The statistics in Figure 4 show that the beginning of the economic crisis had no effect upon the budget deficit, with only a . 4% increase in the budget deficit between 2007 and 2008, yet there was a severe jump in 2009 to a total expenditure of 110. 1% of the GDP which decreased to 109. 1% expenditure of the GDP in 2010, showing that progress had been made to decrease the deficit and spending in relation to the GDP. Despite the mere 1% difference in budget deficit between 2009 and 2010, Portugal was still drowning in debt and in April 2011 requested a bailout by the member nodes of the European network (Seco). The next three weeks resulted in negotiations that have climaxed in an agreement for a 78 billion euro bailout package. Though the precise terms of the package are still under negotiation, the bailout has been heartily welcomed by financial markets which will now allow Lisbon to â€Å"repair its finances without 160,000 167,500 175,000 182,500 190,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 23 defaulting on its debts† (Wearden). The bailout should give Portugal some time to sort out its economy and to pay off debts upon which otherwise it would have defaulted. Similarly to Ireland a few months before, Portugal’s financial downturn was responded to quickly in an attempt to halt the progress of the contagion that had been spreading throughout the European network. Once again, the nodes of the network came together to aid a faltering node and restore faith in the Euro from which they all benefit. Despite the European network’s fervent efforts to prevent any node from defaulting, which have through Portugal been successful, an even greater danger looms on the horizon, Spain. Such a node has the potential to dwarf the first three debtor nodes combined and leave the entire network in disarray. Spain Though originally a creditor, this behemoth node is closely following in the footsteps of the previous three nodes that have all requested bailout packages. Back when Greece was requesting a bailout package, Spain was loaning money, much like the rest of the European network. Because of this, it was affected a bit differently than the previous nodes as it took a hit in the form of a downgraded credit rating, which â€Å"unsettled investors again† (Baetz, Juergen and Pan Pylas). An event such as a downgraded credit score is alarming in that it causes investors to become wary and fearful of investing in a node that is gradually growing weaker and more unstable. As a result it would become difficult for Spain to raise funds as easily as it had prior to its credit score downgrade. After being seen as in trouble throughout 2010, Spain was grouped together with Portugal in November as a perceived risk of default, causing a scare amongst investors. This led to a 24 dumping of both Spanish and Portuguese bonds near the end of November 2010 (Faiola). Furthermore, this perceived risk â€Å"drove their [Portugal and Spain] borrowing costs to near-record highs† causing a further erosion of confidence in Spain (Faiola). During these troubled times, Spain saw a drastic increase in her unemployment rate (Figure 1) from 14% in 2008, to 19% in 2009 and finally 20. 5% in 2010. These levels exceeded every other node in the European network. In comparison to the other nodes analyzed, the budget deficit of Spain is not nearly as bad, percentage wise, as those nodes that requested bailouts; as shown in Figure 5, she begins with a budget surplus in 2007, leading to spending 104. % of GDP in 2008, spending 111. 1% of GDP in 2009 and spending 109. 2% GDP in 2010. Statistically this may not seem to be problematic but when looking at the GDP which exceeds 1 trillion euros, the budget deficit grows very rapidly, creating a great amount of debt in a short period of time. Figure 5 Tracking of Spain’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million Euros). Whereas the preceding three nodes have all skirted with defaulting before receiving bailouts, Spain has no current intention of receiving funds from the member nodes of the 1,000,000 ,050,000 1,100,000 1,150,000 1,200,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 25 European network. Though a fund has been established in which approximately 750 billion euros are available to any node utilizing the euro which may be in need of a bailout, Spain has not taken a step towards this fund (Hooi). Despite this, the fear remains that, with Spain’s economy â€Å"more than twice the size of the Greek, Irish and Portuguese economies combined†¦a Spanish rescue could severely deplete the $1 trillion [750 billion euro] stability fund set up by the E. U. and IMF this year to contain the crisis† (Faiola). Should Spain utilize the security net set down by the European network, it would potentially drain nearly the entire fund, leaving little to no money for any other node that may be in need of assistance. Such an action would leave the creditors who invested in the fund, such as Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, vulnerable to future crises as a sizable portion of their economies would be drained by the behemoth node of Spain. The United Kingdom Though not a node that utilizes the euro, the United Kingdom is still an active member of the European network, and a node that helps support some of the others that have nearly defaulted as a result of the financial crisis. Though now a creditor, in 2008 bank reports claimed that the United Kingdom had â€Å"financial losses of GBP122. 6 billion† (UK Losses hit GBP122bn, says BoE). By 2009 Britain claimed to have been out of the recession yet her methods were not as successful in containing unemployment as those adopted by Germany or France. As noted in Figure 1, during the course of the financial crisis, the United Kingdom saw an increase in the unemployment rate from 6. 3% in 2008 to 7. 7% in 2009 and a tiny increase in 2010 to 7. 8% unemployment. 26 Figure 6 Tracking of the United Kingdom’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million great Britain pound- GBP). The statistics in Figure 6 show that like many of the other nodes in the European network the United Kingdom saw an increase in its budget deficit by the end of the financial crisis. Starting in 2007, it spent 102. 7% of its GDP, increased that to 105% in 2008 and 111. 4% in 2009 before seeing a slight decrease in 2010 to 110. 4% of GDP. Though this is comparable to Portugal or even Spain’s percentages, the United Kingdom is strengthened by having a set and strict plan of austerity along with a currency it can regulate by not being a node that utilizes the euro (West). With the ability to continually throw around money as it sees fit, the United Kingdom has remained a creditor in order to assist other nodes in need of assistance and nearing default. The United Kingdom has, as a result of the financial crisis, acted as a major creditor node in the European network, with a GBP100 billion exposure to Greece, Spain and Portugal, with â€Å"GBP25 billion invested in Greece and Portugal and GBP75 billion invested in Spain,† as of 28 April 2010. A default by any of these states would leave the United Kingdom with a major deficit as its loans would not be paid back (Treanor). One year later the United Kingdom has a nearly GBP200 billion exposure to Greece, Ireland and Portugal (The Economist) with roughly 1,300,000 ,400,000 1,500,000 1,600,000 1,700,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million GBP GDP Deficit/Surplus 27 GBP140 billion of that exposure to Ireland alone (Winnett, Robert and Bruno Waterfield). The degree to which the United Kingdom is economically interconnected is significant in that a default by any node which has taken loans from the United Kingdom would severely damage the economy of the United Kingdom, yet without these loa ns the nodes would have most likely defaulted. Obvously, both sides need each other, which is the very definition of interdependence. France The financial crisis was in fact a wonderful time for France as it was seen as the prominent power in the European network, with supremacy over all the other nodes. France would often brag that she was â€Å"acting while Germany was thinking† (Power Shift). France sought to develop a â€Å"Europe-wide financial regulator and initiate a joint bailout fund† with Germany (Germany and France have often disagreed on bailout strategy). Despite her efforts, France was not able to match Germany’s growth during this crisis and recession and thus fell behind. However, it should be noted that France still remains one of the most powerful nodes in the European network. The unemployment she suffered shows no great change in numbers, from 8. 2% to 10% to 9. 6% in 2008, 2009, and 2010 respectively (Figure 1). Where France truly fell down was in the level of her deficit spending; in 2007 France spent 102. 7% of her GDP, in 2008 103. 3% but in 2009 she jumped to 107. 5% of her GDP, essentially doubling the debt she normally would have taken in that year, finally seeing a slight decrease in the form of a 107. 0% budget deficit in 2010. 8 Figure 5 Tracking of France’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million Euros). In spite of this increase in budget deficit, France remained a strong node in the European network, being a major creditor and savior to many defaulting nodes. As a creditor France worked closely with Germany, often shouldering loans similar to those to which the German node was exposing i tself. The French exposure, coming up short under Britain and Germany, is still a significant figure and risk valued at nearly 150 billion euros. Just like the United Kingdom, France would greatly suffer should a node default, restructure its debt, or take a ‘haircut’ and reduce the overall debt it owes (The Economist). The French aided the other nodes within the network in order to protect the euro, showing that it was strong and backed by strong nodes in order to prevent fears from investors in a weak or unstable euro to gain favor with the defaulting nodes and thus solidify its power within the network. The states that accepted these loans became dependent upon France to prevent them from defaulting or falling into bankruptcy. This in turn forced France to become dependent upon their loan repayments. Though simplistic, the investment France made into the defaulting nodes bound the nodes together tighter than they had been before the financial crisis. 1,800,000 1,875,000 1,950,000 2,025,000 2,100,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 29 Germany Germany’s development into the most economically powerful node in the European network was a slow, steady and careful progression in which hasty action was not taken but decisions thought out and weighed. As previously mentioned, France led an effort at the start of the financial crisis to rally nodes behind her in an attempt to solve the financial problems of all the nodes at once. Germany opposed â€Å"any European plan that would mirror U. S. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulsons proposed $700-billion purchase of banks bad assets. Mr. Steinbruck questioned why German taxpayers should have to pay up to stabilize situations for which other countries are responsible† (Germany, France disagree on bailout strategy). The German idea for solving the financial crisis was to worry about its own people first, then to be concerned about those nodes that were unable to save themselves. Germany’s rise to supremacy by the end of the financial crisis was the result of â€Å"years of wage moderation and labour-market reforms that improved its competitiveness† (Power shift). Furthermore, Germany’s rate of unemployment (Figure 1) shows that it started at 7. 1% in 2008, rose to 7. 4% in 2009 and dropped to 6. % in 2010, almost as low as the United Kingdom’s unemployment rate at the beginning of the financial crisis in 2008. Such careful planning on behalf of the German government not only allowed for an increase in job availability but in keeping the budget deficit extremely low. 30 Figure 5 Tracking of Germany’s GDP in comparison to their spending- deficit or surplus. (Figures are in million Euros). Unlike many other European countries, Germany has kept its budget numbers u nder control. In 2007, the state had a budget surplus of . 3% or 6. 55 billion euros; in 2008, it had a surplus of . % or 2,82 billion euros; in 2009, it ran a deficit by spending 103% of the GDP and 103. 3% of GDP the following year. Overall, Germany was able to keep its economy and spending in reasonable balance. With such a strong economy, Germany naturally became a creditor node helping to finance the safety net set up for any node utilizing the euro that would need financial assistance or a bailout (Hooi). Being the prominent node in the European network Germany naturally shoulders a great deal of the loans requested by other nodes within the network. The degree of exposure that is estimated for Germany is upwards of 230 billion euros (The Economist). As a result should the debtor nodes in fact default, Germany and France would be hit simultaneously though Germany would definitely be suffering under a loss of nearly 250 billion euros. Therefore, it is for the same reasons as mentioned for France that Germany and the defaulting nodes are economically interconnected. The defaulting nodes depend upon Germany for 2,300,000 2,375,000 2,450,000 2,525,000 2,600,000 2007 2008 2009 2010 Million Euro GDP Deficit/Surplus 31 conomic and financial assistance while Germany supports the defaulting nodes in an attempt to boost the strength of the euro as well as investor faith in the euro. Should a node fail under the euro it could spell disaster for other nodes depending upon the euro for support, growth and prosperity. Implications for the Future The bailout of several defaulting nodes by economically stable nodes has shown the dependence of th e defaulting nodes, namely Greece, Ireland, Portugal and potentially Spain, upon the economically stable and growing nodes, the United Kingdom, France and Germany. Conversely, the investments made by the creditor nodes and the possibility of a loss on those investments, makes the creditor nodes dependent upon the economic recovery of the defaulting nodes The fear of a node defaulting under the euro first led the creditor nodes to act. A default while under the euro may lead to a panic and the sale of bonds or stock in the euro. Aloss of faith in the euro would prevent future investments from being made, restricting potential revenue and growth. The failure of one node under the euro could lead to the failure of another node, as was feared in Greece, then Ireland, then Portugal. In order to ensure the survival and continued growth of the euro, those defaulting would have to be saved by the creditor nodes. In this case one side would depend upon the inflow of currency to stave off debt and bankruptcy while the other side depends upon the defaulting nodes to work out their problems and show that the euro is still strong and worth the attention of investors. The implications for the future are very bipolar: either the nodes cooperate, unify, and stabilize the economies of the nodes within the European network which could require continued 32 nvestment but would culminate in strengthened economic ties and/or a strong multi-nodal currency, or the nodes of the networks would find the economic interconnectedness weakening and the ties between the nodes dissolving until the network was far weaker than it had been previously or the network had dissolved completely. If the nodes remained united in their goals to prevent any node from defaulting and keeping the euro as strong as possible the end result would be a European network that had been strengthened through crises and despair. The end of the financial crisis within the European network would mean that the defaulting nodes would have found a way to manage their debt, stabilize their economies, and produce a level of economic growth in order to rebuild. Furthermore it would give a justification for the strength of the euro and its adoption within the nodes of the network. Finally, it would show that the nodes of the European network had strengthened their economic ties to the point that the continued prosperity of the euro would depend upon each node working with the others in order to keep the euro strong. If the nodes were unwilling to continue to finance or bailout the countries in trouble, Greece, Ireland, and Portugal might default leading potentially to a default by Spain which would absorb the majority of the safety net set in place by the European network and the IMF. With all four of these nodes defaulting on loans and draining the European network’s reserve of funds, Germany, France and the United Kingdom would all be hit hard causing recessions and a new wave of financial crises. This would spread throughout the network even more rapidly than the contagion seen in the recent past. With a weakened euro and recession, each node may be forced to focus upon itself, default upon loans, do whatever it can to survive, all at the expense of the network. Such an action could lead to nodes drifting apart as the tie that bound 33 them together and forced them to be economically interdependent came unraveled. This could cause the European network to fall apart. It is clear that the euro is a powerful driving force in the actions of the nodes and one that allows for the nodes to bind closer and become ever more interdependent. Yet the euro has the potential to destroy not merely a single node but the entire network as well under specific circumstances. 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